Words Disturbed and Disturbing
It seems we have forgotten or abused definitions and meanings of many words used in modern media, news reports, academic research, general communications and ‘free speech’ conversations and discourse.
Too many words have had their meanings changed through abuse, misuse or just plain ignorance. The words we use and the way we use them is a real concern when our thoughts, responses, opinions and protests, as we try to communicate and debate our ever divided discourse in modern times and tribulations – unaware of the harm this manipulation of linguistics does to our social developement. Through abuse of narrative and debate, ‘fake’ value systems have been forced upon us, destroying true consciousness and wellbeing.
We must take up our voice and articulate, through ALL mediums, our concerns, our grievances and solutions clearly and honestly with, and to, those that have such ‘power’ over our societies, to control through speech and written word our ways, and quality, of living together.
Karma – is a word with a very relevant meaning and message to us all – that we goes around comes around – good or bad may be determined by one’s perception.
And as a compliment to this post on commonly misused words, here is a post on weird, wonderful and unusual words arranged aphabetically.
Weird Wordage
abstract
adjective |(stress on the first syllable) |1 abstract concepts such as love and beauty: theoretical, conceptual, notional, intellectual, metaphysical, philosophical, academic; hypothetical, speculative, conjectural, conjectured, suppositional, putative; rare suppositious, suppositive, ideational.
ANTONYMS actual, concrete.
abstract
adjective | ˈabstrakt | 1 existing in thought or as an idea but not having a physical or concrete existence: abstract concepts such as love or beauty. • dealing with ideas rather than events: the novel was too abstract and esoteric to sustain much attention. • not based on a particular instance; theoretical: we have been discussing the problem in a very abstract manner. • (of a noun) denoting an idea, quality, or state rather than a concrete object.
2 relating to or denoting art that does not attempt to represent external reality, but rather seeks to achieve its effect using shapes, colours, and textures: abstract pictures.
verb | əbˈstrakt | [with object] (abstract something from) consider something theoretically or separately from(something else): to abstract science and religion from their historical context can lead to anachronism.
2 (usually abstract something from) extract or remove (something): applications to abstract more water from streams. • used euphemistically to indicate that someone has stolen something: his pockets contained all he had been able to abstract from the flat. • (abstract oneself) withdraw: as our relationship deepened you seemed to abstract yourself. 3 make a written summary of (an article or book): staff who abstract material for an online database.
noun | ˈabstrakt | 1 a summary of the contents of a book, article, or speech: an abstract of her speech. 2 an abstract work of art: a big unframed abstract. PHRASES in the abstract in a general way; without reference to specific instances: there’s a fine line between promoting US business interests in the abstract and promoting specific companies. DERIVATIVES abstractly | ˈabstraktli | adverb abstractor | abˈstraktə | noun ORIGIN Middle English: from Latin abstractus, literally ‘drawn away’, past participle of abstrahere, from ab- ‘from’ + trahere ‘draw off’.
2 abstract art: non-representational, non-realistic, non-pictorial, symbolic, impressionistic.
ANTONYMS representational.verb |(stress on the second syllable)
1 staff who index and abstract material for an online database: summarize, write a summary of, precis, abridge, condense, compress, shorten, cut down, abbreviate, synopsize; rare epitomize.
2 they want to abstract water from the river: extract, pump, draw (off), tap, suck, withdraw, remove, take out/away; separate, detach, isolate, dissociate.
noun |(stress on the first syllable) |an abstract of her speech: summary, synopsis, precis, résumé, outline, recapitulation, abridgement, condensation, digest, summation; French aperçu; North American wrap-up; archaic argument; rare epitome, conspectus. ANTONYMS complete version, full text.
activate
activate | ˈaktɪveɪt | verb [with object] make (something) active or operative: fumes from cooking are enough to activate the alarm. • convert (a substance, molecule, etc.) into a reactive form: a DNA-repair enzyme that is activated by visible light | (as adjective activated) : activated chlorine.
adjective
1 activate verb Mark pressed the button which activated the machine: operate, switch on, turn on, start, start off, start up, set going, get going, trigger off, trigger, trip, set in motion, actuate, initiate, initialize, energize, animate. ANTONYMS switch off
activism
activism | ˈaktɪvɪz(ə)m | noun [mass noun] the policy or action of using vigorous campaigning to bring about political or social change: there is growing activism seeking social transformation.
Activism refers to the practice of taking action to effect social, political, economic, or environmental change. It encompasses a wide range of activities, from grassroots organising and protests to lobbying, advocacy, and community outreach.
addicted
addicted | əˈdɪktɪd | (usually addicted to) adjective physically and mentally dependent on a particular substance: I became addicted to alcohol very quickly. • informal enthusiastically devoted to a particular thing or activity: he’s addicted to computers. origin mid 16th century: from the obsolete adjective addict ‘bound or devoted (to someone’), from Latin addict- ‘assigned’, from the verb addicere, from ad- ‘to’ + dicere ‘say’.
addicted adjective
1 he was seriously addicted totranquillizers | he had the occasional bet, but he was never addicted. dependent on, given to using, given to abusing, in the habit of using; dependent, obsessive, obsessional; informal hooked on; US English informal jonesing on/for.
2 she became addicted to the theatre. devoted to, dedicated to, fond of, partial to, keen on, enthusiastic about, enamoured of, in love with, infatuated with, obsessed with, fixated on, fanatical about; informal hooked on, gone on, wild about, nuts about, crazy about; British English informal dotty about, potty about. ANTONYMS indifferent.
affiliation
affiliation | əˌfɪlɪˈeɪʃn |
noun [mass noun]
the state or process of affiliating or being affiliated: the group has no affiliation to any preservation society | [count noun] : his political affiliations.
origin
early 17th century (in the rare sense ‘adoption of a child’): from French, from medieval Latin affiliatio(n-), from the verb affiliare (see affiliate). The modern sense dates from the late 18th century.
affiliation | noun
they rejected affiliation to the current parties | an economist with no party political affiliation. annexing, attaching, connecting, joining, bonding, uniting, combining, associating, aligning, allying, amalgamation, amalgamating, merging, incorporation, incorporating, integration, integrating, federating, federation, confederating, confederation, coupling, fusion; connection, relationship, fellowship, partnership, association, coalition, union, alliance, alignment, attachment, link, bond, tie, yoke; communication,
ample
ample | ˈampl |
adjective (ampler, amplest)
enough or more than enough; plentiful: there is ample time for discussion | an ample supply of consumer goods.
• large and accommodating: he leaned back in his ample chair.
• (of a person’s figure) full or broad: she stood with her hands on her ample hips.
derivatives
ampleness | ˈamplnəs | noun
origin
late Middle English: via French from Latin amplus ‘large, capacious, abundant’.
ample – adjective
1 there is ample time for discussion. enough, sufficient, adequate, plenty of, abundant, more than enough, enough and to spare; suitable, satisfactory, passable, allowable, tolerable; informal plenty, decent. ANTONYMS insufficient.
2 an ample supply of wine. plentiful, abundant, copious, profuse, rich, lavish, liberal, generous, bountiful, large, huge, great, bumper, flush, overflowing, superabundant, infinite, inexhaustible, opulent, prolific, teeming; informal a gogo, galore; South African English informal lank; literary bounteous, plenteous. ANTONYMS meagre.
3 he leaned back in his ample chair | his ample tunic. spacious, commodious, capacious, roomy, sizeable, substantial, generous, big, large, broad, wide, extensive; voluminous, loose-fitting, baggy, slack, slouchy, sloppy, full; rare spacey. ANTONYMS cramped; tight-fitting.
anachronism

An anachronism (from the Greekἀνά ana, “against” and χρόνοςkhronos, “time”) is a chronological inconsistency in some arrangement, especially a juxtaposition of persons, events, objects, or customs from different periods. The most common type of anachronism is an object misplaced in time, but it may be a verbal expression, a technology, a philosophical idea, a musical style, a material, a plant or animal, a custom, or anything else associated with a particular period that is placed outside its proper temporal domain.
An anachronism may be either intentional or unintentional. Intentional anachronisms may be introduced into a literary or artistic work to help a contemporary audience engage more readily with a historical period. Anachronism can also be used for purposes of rhetoric, comedy, or shock. Unintentional anachronisms may occur when a writer, artist, or performer is unaware of differences in technology, language, customs, attitudes, or fashions between different historical eras.
analogy
analogue
anglo-saxon
anomaly
assembly
assumption
noun
1 the statistic is only an informed assumption. supposition, presupposition, presumption, premise, belief, expectation, conjecture, speculation, surmise, guess, theory, hypothesis, postulation, conclusion, deduction, inference, thought, suspicion, notion, impression, fancy; guesswork, guessing, reckoning; informal guesstimate.
2 Theresa shrugged with an assumption of ease. pretence, simulation, affectation; feigning, faking, shamming, pretending.
3 there is an early assumption of community obligation in the tribe. acceptance, shouldering, handling, managing, tackling, taking on; undertaking, entering on, setting about, embarkation on.
4 no one had foreseen the assumption of power by the revolutionaries. seizure, seizing, taking, taking over, taking away, appropriation, appropriating, commandeering, expropriation, expropriating, confiscation, confiscating, requisition, requisitioning, hijack, hijacking, wresting, usurping, pre-empting, arrogation, claiming.
avoidant
avoidant | əˈvoɪdənt | adjective Psychology relating to or denoting a type of personality or behaviour characterized by the avoidance of intimacy or social interaction: he was also anxious, avoidant, and unable to manage conflict.
Avoidant personality disorder (AvPD) is a Cluster C personality disorder.[1] Those affected display a pattern of severe social anxiety, social inhibition, feelings of inadequacy and inferiority, extreme sensitivity to negative evaluation and rejection, and avoidance of social interaction despite a strong desire for intimacy.[2] The behavior is usually noticed by early adulthood and occurs in most situations.[2]
People with AvPD often consider themselves to be socially inept or personally unappealing and avoid social interaction for fear of being ridiculed, humiliated, rejected, or disliked. They generally avoid becoming involved with others unless they are certain they will be liked. As the name suggests, the main coping mechanism of those with AvPD is avoidance of feared stimuli.[1]Childhood emotional neglect (in particular, the rejection of a child by one or both parents) and peer group rejection are associated with an increased risk for its development; however, it is possible for AvPD to occur without any notable history of abuse or neglect.[3]
Some researchers have theorized certain cases of AvPD may occur when individuals with innately high sensory processing sensitivity (characterized by deeper processing of physical and emotional stimuli, alongside high levels of empathy) are raised in abusive, negligent or otherwise dysfunctional environments, which inhibits their ability to form secure bonds with others.[4]
autistic
autistic | ɔːˈtɪstɪk |
adjective
relating to or having the neurodevelopmental condition of autism: Hayley wants to help other families with autistic children | Cameron is autistic, and this distraction has been fun for him | autistic traits.
noun
a person with autism; an autistic person.
origin | early 20th century (originally with reference to a condition in which fantasy dominates over reality, regarded as a symptom of schizophrenia and other disorders): via German autistisch from Greek autos ‘self’ + the adjectival suffix -istic.
awareness
Awareness is the ability to directly know and perceive, to feel, or to be cognizant of events. More broadly, it is the state of being conscious of something. Another definition describes it as a state wherein a subject is aware of some information when that information is directly available to bring to bear in the direction of a wide range of behavioral processes.[1] The concept is often synonymous to consciousness and is also understood as being consciousness itself.[2]
States of awareness are also associated with the states of experience so that the structure represented in awareness is mirrored in the structure of experience.[1]
beget | begotten
beget | AmE bəˈɡɛt, BrE bɪˈɡɛt | transitive verb present participle begetting past tense begot or (archaic) begat | bɪˈɡæt | ; past participle begotten (literary) 1 (give rise to) ‹difficulty/crime/hatred› provocar; engendrar (literary) 2 (father) engendrar
beget – verb literary
1 he married again and begat Alexander: father, sire, engender, generate, spawn, create, give life to, bring into being, bring into the world, have; procreate, reproduce, breed.
2 we have to make people realize that violence begets more violence: cause, give rise to, lead to, result in, bring about, create, produce, generate, engender, spawn, occasion, effect, bring to pass, bring on, precipitate, prompt, provoke, kindle, trigger, spark off, touch off, stir up, whip up, induce, inspire, promote, foster; literary enkindle; rare effectuate.
capitalism
capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit.[1][2][3][4] Characteristics central to capitalism include private property, capital accumulation, wage labor, voluntary exchange, a price system and competitive markets.[5][6] In a capitalist market economy, decision-making and investments are determined by every owner of wealth, property or production ability in financial and capital markets, whereas prices and the distribution of goods and services are mainly determined by competition in goods and services markets.[7][8]
Economists, political economists, sociologists and historians have adopted different perspectives in their analyses of capitalism and have recognized various forms of it in practice. These include laissez-faire or free-market capitalism, welfare capitalism and state capitalism. Different forms of capitalism feature varying degrees of free markets, public ownership,[9] obstacles to free competition and state-sanctioned social policies. The degree of competition in markets, the role of interventionand regulation, and the scope of state ownershipvary across different models of capitalism.[10][11]The extent to which different markets are free as well as the rules defining private property are matters of politics and policy. Most existingcapitalist economies are mixed economies whichcombine elements of free markets with state intervention and in some cases economic planning.[12]
Market economies have existed under many forms of government and in many different times, places and cultures. Modern capitalist societies—marked by a universalization of money-based social relations, a consistently large and system-wide class of workers who must work for wages, and a capitalist class which owns the means of production—developed in Western Europe in a process that led to the Industrial Revolution. Capitalist systems with varying degrees of direct government intervention have since become dominant in the Western world and continue to spread. Over time, capitalist countries have experienced consistent economic growth and an increase in the standard of living.
Critics of capitalism argue that it establishes power in the hands of a minority capitalist class that exists through the exploitation of the majority working class and their labor; prioritizes profit over social good, natural resources and the environment; and is an engine of inequality, corruption and economic instabilities. Supporters argue that it provides better products and innovation through competition, disperses wealth to all productive people, promotes pluralism and decentralization of power, creates strong economic growth and yields productivity andprosperity that greatly benefit society.
certainty
certainty | ˈsəːt(ɪ)nti |
noun (plural certainties) [mass noun]
firm conviction that something is the case: she knew with absolute certainty that they were dead.
• the quality of being reliably true: there is a bewildering lack of certainty and clarity in the law.
• a general air of confidence: a man exuding certainty.
• [count noun] a fact that is definitely true or an event that is definitely going to take place: the passing of the act made a general election a certainty.
• [count noun] a person that is certain to do or win the specified thing: he was expected to be a certainty for a gold medal.
PHRASES
for a certainty – beyond the possibility of doubt: he knew they would come again for a certainty.
origin | Middle English: from Old French certainete, from certain (see certain).
certainty | noun
1 she knew with certainty that he was telling the truth. confidence, sureness, positiveness, conviction, certitude, reliability, assuredness, assurance, validity, conclusiveness, authoritativeness, truth, fact, factualness. ANTONYMS uncertainty; doubt.
2 he accepted defeat as a certainty | that horse is a certainty for the 2.00 at Newmarket tomorrow. inevitability, necessity, foregone conclusion, predictable result, matter of course, racing certainty; certain winner; informal sure thing, cert, dead cert, sure-fire winner. ANTONYMS possibility; impossibility.
code
collaboration
collaboration | noun
1 he wrote on art and architecture in collaboration with John Betjeman. cooperation, alliance, partnership, participation, combination, association, concert; teamwork, joint effort, working together, coopetition.
2 Salengro had been accused of collaboration with the enemy. fraternizing, fraternization, colluding, collusion, cooperating, cooperation, consorting, sympathizing, sympathy; conspiring. ANTONYMS resistance.
common knowledge
Common knowledge is knowledge that is known by everyone or nearly everyone, usually with reference to the community in which the term is used. Common knowledge need not concern one specific subject, e.g., science or history. Rather, common knowledge can be about a broad range of subjects, such as science, literature, history, and entertainment. Often, common knowledge does not need to be cited. Common knowledge is distinct from general knowledge. The latter has been defined by differential psychologists as referring to “culturally valued knowledge communicated by a range of non-specialist media”, and is considered an aspect of ability related to intelligence.[1]Therefore, there are substantial individual differences in general knowledge as opposed to common knowledge.
In broader terms, common knowledge is used to refer to information that a reader would accept as valid, such as information that many users may know. As an example, this type of information may include the temperature in which water freezes or boils. To determine if information should be considered common knowledge, you can ask yourself who your audience is, are you able to assume they already have some familiarity with the topic, or will the information’s credibility come into question.
Many techniques have been developed in response to the question of distinguishing truth from fact in matters that have become “common knowledge”. The scientific method is usually applied in cases involving phenomena associated with astronomy, mathematics, physics, and the general laws of nature. In legal settings, rules of evidence generally exclude hearsay (which may draw on “facts” someone believes to be “common knowledge”).
“Conventional wisdom” is a similar term also referring to ostensibly pervasive knowledge or analysis.
compelling
adjective
1 she gave a compelling and intensely dramatic performance. enthralling, captivating, gripping, engrossing, riveting, spellbinding, entrancing, transfixing, mesmerizing, hypnotic, mesmeric, absorbing, fascinating, thrilling, irresistible, addictive; informal unputdownable. ANTONYMS boring.
2 he had no compelling arguments for changing the status quo. convincing, persuasive, cogent, irresistible, forceful, powerful, potent, strong, weighty, plausible, credible, effective, efficacious, sound, valid, reasonable, reasoned, well reasoned, rational, well founded, telling, conclusive, irrefutable, unanswerable, authoritative, influential. ANTONYMS weak.
conscious
adjective | ˈkɒnʃəs
1 aware of and responding to one’s surroundings: although I was in pain, I was conscious.
2 having knowledge of something: we are conscious of the extent of the problem. • [in combination] concerned with or worried about a particular matter: they were growing increasingly security-conscious.
3 (of an action or feeling) deliberate and intentional: a conscious effort to walk properly. • (of the mind or a thought) directly perceptible to and under the control of the person concerned: when you go to sleep it is only the conscious mind which shuts down. ORIGIN late 16th century (in the sense ‘being aware of wrongdoing’): from Latin conscius ‘knowing with others or in oneself’ (from conscire ‘be privy to’) + -ous.
use cases
1 the patient was barely conscious: aware, awake, wide awake, compos mentis, alert, responsive, reactive, feeling, sentient. ANTONYMS unconscious
2 he became conscious of people talking in the hall: aware of, alive to, awake to, alert to, sensitive to, cognizant of, mindful of, sensible of; informal wise to, in the know about, hip to; archaic ware of; rare seized of, recognizant of, regardful of. ANTONYMS unaware
3 he made a conscious effort to stop staring: deliberate, intentional, intended, done on purpose, purposeful, purposive, willed, knowing, considered, studied, strategic; calculated, wilful, premeditated, planned, pre-planned, preconceived, volitional; aforethought; Law, dated prepense.
civilisation
adjective |civilization noun 1 a higher stage of civilization: human development, advancement, progress, enlightenment, culture, refinement, sophistication. 2 ancient civilizations: culture, society, nation, people.
Civilisational or Societal collapse is the fall of a complex human society. Such a disintegration may be relatively abrupt, as in the case of Maya civilization, or gradual, as in the case of the fall of the Western Roman Empire.
The subject of societal collapse is of interest in such fields as history, anthropology, sociology, political science, and, more recently, cliodynamics[1] and complex-systems science.
Causes of collapse
Common factors that may contribute to societal collapse are economical, environmental, social and cultural, and disruptions in one domain sometimes cascade into others. In somecases a natural disaster (e.g. tsunami, earthquake, massive fire or climate change) may precipitate a collapse. Other factors such as a Malthusian catastrophe, overpopulation or resource depletion might be the proximate cause of collapse. Significant inequity and exposed corruption may combine with lack of loyalty to established political institutions and result in an oppressed lower class rising up and seizing power from a smaller wealthy elite in a revolution. The diversity of forms that societies evolve corresponds to diversity in their failures. Jared Diamond suggests that societies have also collapsed through deforestation, loss of soilfertility, restrictions of trade and/or rising endemic violence.[2]
disruptor
A ‘disruptive’ innovator
INNOVATION TYPES
Sustaining – An innovation that does not significantly affect existing markets. It may be either:
-
Evolutionary – An innovation that improves a product in an existing market in ways that customers are expecting (e.g., fuel injectionfor gasoline engines, which displaced carburetors.)
-
Revolutionary (discontinuous, radical)
- An innovation that is unexpected, but nevertheless does not affect existing markets (e.g., the first automobiles in the late 19th century, which were expensive luxury items, and as such very few were sold)
Disruptive
- An innovation that creates a newmarket by providing a different set of values, which ultimately (and unexpectedly) overtakes an existing market (e.g., the lower-priced, affordable Ford Model T, which displaced horse-drawn carriages)
Not all innovations are disruptive, even if they are revolutionary. For example, the first automobiles in the late 19th century were not a disruptive innovation, because early automobiles were expensive luxury items that did not disrupt the market for horse-drawn vehicles. The market for transportation essentially remained intact until the debut of the lower-priced Ford Model T in 1908.[5]The mass-produced automobile was a disruptive innovation, because it changed the transportation market, whereas the first thirty years of automobiles did not.
Disruptive innovations tend to be produced by outsiders and entrepreneurs in startups, rather than existing market-leading companies. The businessenvironment of market leaders does not allow them to pursue disruptive innovations when they first arise, because they are not profitable enough at first and because their development can take scarce resources away from sustaining innovations (which are needed to compete against current competition).[6] A disruptive process can take longer to develop than by the conventional approach and the risk associated to it is higher than the other more incremental or evolutionary forms of innovations, but once it is deployed in the market, it achieves a much faster penetration and higher degree of impact on the established markets.[7]
Beyond business and economics disruptive innovations can also be considered to disrupt complex systems, including economic and business-related aspects.[8]
discourse
disorder
eclectic
eclectic | ɪˈklɛktɪk |
adjective
1 deriving ideas, style, or taste from a broad and diverse range of sources: universities offering an eclectic mix of courses | her musical tastes are eclectic.
2 (Eclectic) Philosophy denoting or belonging to a class of ancient philosophers who did not belong to or found any recognized school of thought but selected doctrines from various schools of thought.
noun
a person who derives ideas, style, or taste from a broad and diverse range of sources.
derivatives
eclectically adverb
origin
late 17th century (as a term in philosophy): from Greek eklektikos, from eklegein ‘pick out’, from ek ‘out’ + legein ‘choose’.
eclectic | adjective
1 they played an eclectic mix of party music. wide-ranging, wide, broad, broad-ranging, broad-based, extensive, comprehensive, encyclopedic, general, universal, varied, diverse, diversified, catholic, liberal, cross-disciplinary, interdisciplinary, multidisciplinary, all-embracing, non-exclusive, inclusive, indiscriminate, many-sided, multifaceted, multifarious, heterogeneous, miscellaneous, assorted. ANTONYMS narrow.
2 an eclectic approach to teaching the curriculum. selective, selecting, choosing, picking and choosing; discriminating, discerning, critical. ANTONYMS dogmatic.
ego
ego | ˈiːɡəʊ |
noun (plural egos)
a person’s sense of self-esteem or self-importance: he needed a boost to his ego.
• Psychoanalysis the part of the mind that mediates between the conscious and the unconscious and is responsible for reality testing and a sense of personal identity. Compare with id, and superego
• Philosophy (in metaphysics) a conscious thinking subject.
derivatives
egoless adjective
ego
noun
he needed a boost to his ego. self-esteem, self-importance, self-worth, self-respect, self-conceit, self-image, self-confidence; French amour propre.
origin – early 19th century: from Latin, literally ‘I’.
empathy
empathy | ˈɛmpəθi | noun [mass noun] the ability to understand and share the feelings of another. DERIVATIVESempathist noun ORIGINearly 20th century: from Greek empatheia (from em- ‘in’ + pathos ‘feeling’) translating German Einfühlung.USAGE People often confuse the words empathy and sympathy. Empathymeans ‘the ability to understand and share the feelings of another’ (as in both authors have the skill to make you feel empathy with their heroines), whereas sympathy means ‘feelings of pity and sorrow for someone else’s misfortune’ (as in they had great sympathy for the floodvictims).
empathy noun
What is really important about learning a language is learning empathy for another culture: affinity with, rapport with, sympathy with, understanding of, sensitivity towards, sensibility to, identification with, awareness of, fellowship with, fellow feeling for, like-mindedness, togetherness, closeness to; informal chemistry. ANTONYMS distance
Empathy is the capacity to understand or feel what another person is experiencing from within their frame of reference, that is, the capacity to place oneself in another’s position.[1]Definitions of empathy encompass a broad range ofemotional states. Types of empathy include cognitive empathy, emotional (or affective) empathy, and somaticempathy.[2][3]
emulate
entropy (arrow of time)
entropy is the only quantity in the physical sciences (apart from certain rare interactions in particle physics; see below) that requires a particular direction for time, sometimes called an arrow of time. As one goes “forward” in time, the second law of thermodynamics says, the entropy of an isolated system can increase, but not decrease. Hence, from one perspective, entropy measurement is a way of distinguishing the past from the future. However, in thermodynamic systems that are not closed, entropy can decrease with time: many systems, including living systems, reduce local entropy at the expense of an environmental increase, resulting in a net increase in entropy. Examples of such systems and phenomena include the formation of typical crystals, the workings of a refrigerator and living organisms, used in thermodynamics.
Much like temperature, despite being an abstract concept, everyone has an intuitive sense of the effects of entropy. For example, it is often very easy to tell the difference between a video being played forwards or backwards. A video may depict a wood fire that melts a nearby ice block, played in reverse it would show that a puddle of water turned a cloud of smoke into unburnt wood and froze itself in the process. Surprisingly, in either case the vast majority of the laws of physics are not broken by these processes, a notable exception being the second law of thermodynamics. When a law of physics applies equally when time is reversed it is said to show T-symmetry, in this case entropy is what allows one to decide if the video described above is playing forwards or in reverse as intuitively we identify that only when played forwards the entropy of the scene is increasing. Because of the second law of thermodynamics entropy prevents macroscopic processes showing T-symmetry.
When studying at a microscopic scale the above judgements can not be made. Watching a single smoke particle buffeted by air it would not be clear if a video was playing forwards or in reverse and in fact it would not be possible as the laws which apply show T-symmetry, as it drifts left or right qualitatively it looks no different. It is only when you study that gas at a macroscopic scale that the effects of entropy become noticeable. On average you would expect the smoke particles around a struck match to drift away from each other, diffusing throughout the available space. It would be an astronomically improbable event for all the particles to cluster together, yet you can not comment on the movement of any one smoke particle.
By contrast, certain subatomic interactions involving the weak nuclear force violate the conservation of parity, but only very rarely. According to the CPT theorem, this means they should also be time irreversible, and so establish an arrow of time. This, however, is neither linked to the thermodynamic arrow of time, nor has anything to do with our daily experience of time irreversibility.[1]
freedom
noun 1the prisoners made a desperate bid for freedom: liberty, liberation, release, emancipation, deliverance, delivery, discharge, non-confinement, extrication; amnesty, pardoning; historical manumission; rare disenthralment.
ANTONYMS
captivity2 a national revolution was the only path to freedom: independence, self-government, self-determination, self-legislation, self rule, home rule, sovereignty, autonomy, autarky, democracy; self-sufficiency, individualism, separation, non-alignment; emancipation, enfranchisement; historical manumission.
dependence 3 they want freedom from local political accountability: exemption, immunity, dispensation, exception, exclusion, release, relief, reprieve, absolution, exoneration; impunity; informal letting off, a let-off; rare derogation.
liability 4 the law interfered with their freedom of expression: right to, entitlement to; privilege, prerogative, due. 5 patients have more freedom to choose who treats them: scope, latitude, leeway, margin, flexibility, facility, space, breathing space, room, elbow room; licence, leave, free rein, a free hand; leisure; French carte blanche.
restriction 6 I admire her freedom of manner: naturalness, openness, lack of reserve/inhibition, casualness, informality, lack of ceremony, spontaneity, ingenuousness.7 he treats her with too much freedom: impudence; familiarity, overfamiliarity, presumption, forwardness; informal cheek.
fear of freedom
generational
generational | ˌdʒɛnəˈreɪʃən(ə)l |
adjective
relating to or characteristic of all the people born and living at about the same time, regarded collectively: generational differences in television usage | we’re seeing a generational shift in attitudes | the changes seem to reflect a generational divide | generational shift is taking place as new and younger leaders emerge.
relating to the different generations of a community or particular family: a compelling generational saga.
intergenerational | ˌɪntədʒɛnəˈreɪʃən(ə)l | adjective
relating to, involving, or affecting several generations: the intergenerational conflict and political turmoil of the 1960s.
guidance
guidance | ˈɡʌɪd(ə)ns |
noun [mass noun]
1 advice or information aimed at resolving a problem or difficulty, especially as given by someone in authority: he looked to his father for inspiration and guidance.
2 the directing of the motion or position of something, especially an aircraft, spacecraft, or missile: [as modifier] : a laser guidance system.
guidance | noun
1 she looked to her instructor for guidance. advice, counsel, direction, instruction, teaching, counselling, enlightenment, intelligence, information; recommendations, suggestions, tips, hints, pointers, guidelines, ideas, facts, data; informal info, dope, the low-down, the inside story; British English informal gen.
2 we are working under the guidance of a strong chairman. direction, control, leadership, management, supervision, superintendence, government, regulation, orchestration, charge, rule, command; handling, conduct, running, overseeing.
guise
noun
1 the god appeared in the guise of a swan: likeness, external appearance, appearance, semblance, form, outward form, shape, image, aspect; disguise, false colours; costume, clothes, outfit, dress.
2 the king sent forces into Flanders under the guise of a crusade: pretence, false show, false front, false display, show, front, facade, illusion, cover, blind, screen, smokescreen, masquerade, posture, pose, act, charade; informal put-on, put-up job.
guise | ɡʌɪz |
noun
an external form, appearance, or manner of presentation, typically concealing the true nature of something: he visited in the guise of an inspector | sums paid under the guise of consultancy fees.
ORIGIN Middle English: from Old French, of Germanic origin; related to wise2.
gratification
gratification is the pleasurable emotional reaction of happiness in response to a fulfillment of a desire or goal. It is also identified as a response stemming from the fulfillment of social needs such as affiliation, socializing, social approval, and mutual recognition.[1]
Gratification, like all emotions, is a motivator of behavior and thus plays a role in the entire range of human social systems.
Immediate and delayed gratification
The term immediate gratification is often used to label the satisfactions gained by more impulsive behaviors: choosing now over tomorrow.[2] The skill of giving preference to long-term goals over more immediate ones is known as deferred gratification or patience, and it is usually considered a virtue, producing rewards in the long term.[3] There are sources who claim that the prefrontal cortex plays a part in the incidence of these two types of gratification, particularly in the case of delayed gratification since one of its functions involve predicting future events.[4][5]
Walter Mischel developed the well-known marshmallow experiment to test gratification patterns in four-year-olds, offering one marshmallow now or two after a delay.[6] He discovered in long-term follow-up that the ability to resist eating the marshmallow immediately was a good predictor of success in later life. However, Tyler W. Watts, Greg J. Duncan, and Haonan Quan, published Revisiting the Marshmallow Test: A Conceptual Replication Investigating Links Between Early Delay of Gratification and Later Outcomes[7] debunking the original marshmallow experiment. Concluding that “This bivariate correlation was only half the size of those reported in the original studies and was reduced by two thirds in the presence of controls for family background, early cognitive ability, and the home environment. Most of the variation in adolescent achievement came from being able to wait at least 20 s. Associations between delay time and measures of behavioral outcomes at age 15 were much smaller and rarely statistically significant.”
Criticism
While one might say that those who lack the skill to delay are immature, an excess of this skill can create problems as well; i.e. an individual becomes inflexible, or unable to take pleasure in life (anhedonia) and seize opportunities for fear of adverse consequences.[8]
There are also circumstances, in an uncertain/negative environment, when seizing gratification is the rational approach,[9] as in wartime.[10]
Bipolar disorder
Gratification is a major issue in bipolar disorder. One sign of the onset of depression is a spreading loss of the sense of gratification in such immediate things as friendship, jokes, conversation, food and sex.[11] Long-term gratification seems even more meaningless.[12]
By contrast, the manic can find gratification in almost anything, even a leaf falling, or seeing their crush for example.[13] There is also the case of the so-called manic illusion of gratification , which isanalogous to an infant’s illusion of obtaining food. Here, if the food is not given right away, he fantasizes about it and this eventually give way to stronger emotions such as anger and depression.[14]


Acceptance – Affection – Amusement – Anger – Angst – Anguish – Annoyance – Anticipation – Anxiety – Apathy – Arousal – Awe – Boredom – Confidence – Contempt – Contentment – Courage – Curiosity – Depression – Desire – Despair – Disappointment – Disgust – Distrust – Doubt – Ecstasy – Embarrassment – Empathy – Enthusiasm – Envy – Euphoria – Faith – Fear – Frustration – Gratification Gratitude – Greed – Grief – Guilt – Happiness – Hatred – Hope – Horror – Hostility – Humiliation – Interest – Jealousy – Joy – Kindness – Loneliness – Love – Lust – Nostalgia – Outrage – Panic – Passion – Pity – Pleasure – Pride – Rage – Regret – Rejection – Remorse – Resentment – Sadness – Self-confidence – Self-pity – Shame – Shock – Shyness – Social connection – Sorrow – Suffering – Surprise – Trust – Wonder – Worry
halo effect
Humanities
indicative
karma
karma (/ˈkɑːrmə/; Sanskrit: कर्म, romanized: karma, IPA: [ˈkɐɽmɐ] (listen); Pali: kamma) means action, work or deed;[1] it also refers to the spiritual principle of cause and effect where intent and actions of an individual (cause) influence the future of that individual (effect).[2] Good intent and good deeds contribute to good karma and happier rebirths, while bad intent and bad deeds contribute to bad karma and bad rebirths.[3][4]
The philosophy of karma is closely associated with the idea of rebirth in many schools of Indian religions (particularly Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism[5]) as well as Taoism.[6] In these schools, karma in the present affects one’s future in the current life, as well as the nature and quality of future lives – one’s saṃsāra.[7][8]
logo

Logos (UK: /ˈloʊɡɒs, ˈlɒɡɒs/, US: /ˈloʊɡoʊs/; Ancient Greek: λόγος, romanized: lógos; related to λέγω, légō, cognate with Latin Legus (law) and lego (to speak), from Proto-Indo-European *leǵ-, which can have the meanings “I put in order, arrange, gather, I choose, count, reckon, I say, speak”. It is a term used in Western philosophy, psychology, rhetoric, and religion. The primary meaning is that of “Reason” (Lat. “Ratio”) or “cause”. Additionally, it can have the meaning of “human speech” or “discourse”.[1][2]. It is occasionally used in other contexts, such as for “ratio” in mathematics.
The Purdue Online Writing Lab clarifies that Logos is “frequently translated as some variation of ‘logic or reasoning, but it originally referred to the actual content of a speech and how it was organized. Today, many people may discuss the logos qualities of a text to refer to how strong the logic or reasoning of the text is. But logos more closely refers to the structure and content of the text itself. In this resource, logos means “text.””[3]
imagery
imagery, in a literary text, is an author’s use of vivid and descriptive language to add depth to their work. It appeals to human senses to deepen the reader’s understanding of the work. Powerful forms of imagery engage all of the senses.
forms
There are seven major types of imagery, each corresponding to a sense, feeling, action, or reaction:
- Visual imagery pertains to graphics, visual scenes, pictures, or the sense of sight.
- Auditory imagery pertains to sounds, noises, music, or the sense of hearing. (This kind of imagery may come in the form of onomatopoeia).
- Olfactory imagery pertains to odors, scents, or the sense of smell.
- Gustatory imagery pertains to flavors or the sense of taste.
- Tactile imagery pertains to physical textures or the sense of touch.
less used
- Kinesthetic imagery pertains to movements.
- Organic imagery / subjective imagery, pertains to personal experiences of a character’s body, including emotion and the senses of hunger, thirst, fatigue, and pain.[1]
lurch
lurch 1| ləːtʃ |
noun
PHRASES leave someone in the lurchleave someone abruptly and without assistance or support when they are in a difficult situation: he left you in the lurch when you needed him most.
ORIGIN mid 16th century (denoting a state of discomfiture): from French lourche, the name of a game resembling backgammon, used in the phrase demeurer lourche ‘be discomfited’.
lurch 2| ləːtʃ |
verb[no object, with adverbial]
make an abrupt, unsteady, uncontrolled movement or series of movements; stagger: the car lurched forward | Stuart lurched to his feet| figurative : he was lurching from one crisis to the next.
noun[usually in singular] an abrupt uncontrolled movement, especially an unsteady tilt or roll: the boat gave a violent lurch and he missed his footing.
ORIGIN late 17th century (as a noun denoting the sudden leaning of a ship to one side): of unknown origin.
lurch
1 he lurched into the kitchen: stagger, stumble, sway, reel, roll, weave, totter, flounder, falter, wobble, slip, move clumsily. ANTONYMS tiptoe
2 Scott was hurled across a bulkhead as the ship lurched: sway, reel, list, roll, pitch, toss, keel, veer, labour, flounder, heel, swerve, make heavy weather; Nauticalpitchpole.
liberty
noun 1 individuals should enjoy the liberty to pursue their own interests and preferences: freedom, independence, free rein, freeness, licence, self-determination; free will, latitude, option, choice; volition, non-compulsion, non-coercion, non-confinement; leeway, margin, scope, elbow room.
ANTONYMS constraint
2 parliamentary government is the essence of British liberty: independence, freedom, autonomy, sovereignty, self government, self rule, self determination, home rule; civil liberties, civil rights, human rights; rare autarky.
dependence, subjugation
3 no man who was born free would be contented to be penned up and denied the liberty to go where he pleases: right, birthright, opportunity, facility, prerogative, entitlement, privilege, permission, sanction, leave, consent, authorization, authority, licence, clearance, blessing, dispensation, exemption, faculty; French carte blanche.
PHRASES
at liberty
1 he was at liberty for three months before he was recaptured: free, on the loose, loose, set loose, at large, unconfined, roaming; unbound, untied, unchained, unshackled, unfettered, unrestrained, unrestricted, wild, untrammelled; escaped, out; informal sprung.
in captivity; imprisoned
2 your great aunt was at liberty to divide her estate how she chose: free, permitted, allowed, authorized, able, entitled, eligible, fit; unconstrained, unrestricted, unhindered, without constraint.
forbidden, take liberties
3 you’ve already taken too many liberties with me: act with overfamiliarity, act with familiarity, show disrespect, act with impropriety, act indecorously, be impudent, commit a breach of etiquette, act with boldness, act with impertinence, show insolence, show impudence, show presumptuousness, show presumption, show forwardness, show audacity, be unrestrained; take advantage of, exploit. ANTONYMS be polite; show consideration
- CHOOSE THE RIGHT WORD liberty, freedom, independence
All these words denote absence of constraint or coercion.
Liberty denotes the desirable state of being free, within society, from oppressive restrictions imposed by authority on one’s behaviour or political views (we believe in civil and religious liberty for everyone: ). It may also mean the power or scope to act as one pleases (individuals should enjoy the liberty to pursue their own preferences: ). To be at liberty to do something is to be allowed or entitled to do it (I’m not at liberty to say: ).
Freedom is a more general word for the absence of constraint (decentralization would give local managers more freedom: | freedom of expression: | freedom to organize their affairs: ).
Freedom can also indicate the absence of a particular evil or constraint (freedom from fear: | freedom from interference: ) or the state of being unrestricted in movement (the shorts have a side split for freedom of movement: ).
Both freedom and liberty can also mean the state of not being imprisoned or enslaved (the teenager committed fifty-six crimes before he lost his freedom: | the mayor remained at liberty pending a decision as to his place of confinement: ).
The principal meaning of independence is the absence of control of a nation or corporate body by an outside power (recognition of Azerbaijan’s independence: | the independence of the judiciary: ). When used in relation to individuals, independence may denote a freedom from commitments (could she pursue her independence if Chester needed her?: ) or the personal quality of not relying on others (parents should foster their child’s independence: ).
manifesto
mislead
mislead | mɪsˈliːd | verb (past and past participle misled | mɪsˈlɛd | ) [with object] cause (someone) to have a wrong idea or impression: the government misled the public about the road’s environmental impact.
deceit | dɪˈsiːt | noun [mass noun] the action or practice of deceiving someone by concealing or misrepresenting the truth: a web of deceit | hypocrisy and deceit were anathema to her | [count noun] : a series of lies and deceits.
Deception is an act or statement which misleads, hides the truth, or promotes a belief, concept, or idea that is nottrue. It is often done for personal gain or advantage.[1][2] Deception can involve dissimulation, propaganda, and sleight of hand, as well as distraction, camouflage, or concealment. There is also self-deception, as in bad faith. It can also be called, with varying subjective implications, beguilement, deceit, bluff, mystification, ruse, or subterfuge.
Deception is a major relational transgression that often leads to feelings of betrayal and distrust between relational partners. Deception violates relational rules and is considered to be a negative violation of expectations. Most people expect friends, relational partners, and even strangers to be truthful most of the time. If people expected most conversations to be untruthful, talking and communicating with others would require distraction and misdirection to acquire reliable information. A significant amount of deception occurs between some romantic and relational partners.[3]
Deceit and dishonesty can also form grounds for civil litigation in tort, or contract law (where it is known as misrepresentation or fraudulent misrepresentation if deliberate), or give rise to criminal prosecution for fraud. It also forms a vital part of psychological warfare in denial and deception.
Deception detection between relational partners is extremely difficult, unless a partner tells a blatant or obvious lie or contradicts something the other partner knows to be true. While it is difficult to deceive a partner over a long period oftime, deception often occurs in day-to-day conversations between relationalpartners.[3] Detecting deception is difficult because there are no known completely reliable indicators of deception and because people often reply on a truth-default state. Deception, however, places a significant cognitive load on the deceiver. He or she must recall previous statements so that his or her story remains consistent and believable. As a result, deceivers often leak important information both verbally and nonverbally.
Deception and its detection is a complex, fluid, and cognitive process that is based on the context of the message exchange. The interpersonal deception theory posits that interpersonal deception is a dynamic, iterative process of mutual influence between a sender, who manipulates information to depart from the truth, and a receiver, who attempts to establish the validity of the message.[7] A deceiver’s actions are interrelated to the message receiver’s actions. It is during this exchange that the deceiver will reveal verbal and nonverbal information about deceit.[8] Some research has found that there are some cues that may be correlated with deceptive communication, but scholars frequently disagree about the effectiveness of many of these cues to serve as reliable indicators. Noted deception scholar Aldert Vrij even states that there is no nonverbal behavior that is uniquely associated with deception.[9] As previously stated, a specific behavioral indicator of deception does not exist. There are, however, some nonverbal behaviors that have been found to be correlated with deception. Vrij found that examining a “cluster” of these cues was a significantly more reliable indicator of deception than examining a single cue.[9]
Mark Frank proposes that deception is detected at the cognitive level.[10] Lying requires deliberate conscious behavior, so listening to speech and watching body language are important factors in detecting lies. If a response to a question has a lot disturbances, less talking time, repeated words, and poor logical structure, then the person may be lying. Vocal cues such as frequency height and variation may also provide meaningful clues to deceit.[11]
Fear specifically causes heightened arousal in liars, which manifests in more frequent blinking, pupil dilation, speech disturbances, and a higher pitched voice. The liars that experience guilt have been shown to make attempts at putting distance between themselves and the deceptive communication, producing “nonimmediacy cues” These can be verbal or physical, including speaking in more indirect ways and showing an inability to maintain eye contact with their conversation partners.[12] Another cue for detecting deceptive speech is the tone of the speech itself. Streeter, Krauss, Geller, Olson, and Apple (1977) have assessed that fear and anger, two emotions widely associated with deception, cause greater arousal than grief or indifference, and note that the amount of stress one feels is directly related to the frequency of the voice.[13]
magnanimous
magnanimous | maɡˈnanɪməs |
adjective – generous or forgiving, especially towards a rival or less powerful person: she should be magnanimous in victory.
derivatives
magnanimously | maɡˈnanɪməsli | adverb
origin
mid 16th century: from Latin magnanimus (from magnus ‘great’ + animus ‘soul’) + -ous.
adjective
she was magnanimous in victory. generous, charitable, benevolent, beneficent, open-handed, big-hearted, great-hearted, munificent, bountiful, liberal, handsome, princely, altruistic, kind, kindly, philanthropic, chivalrous, noble; unselfish, selfless, self-sacrificing, ungrudging, unstinting; forgiving, merciful, lenient, indulgent, clement; literary bounteous. ANTONYMS mean-spirited, selfish.
Economic theories
narcissism
Narcissism is also considered a social or cultural problem. It is a factor in trait theory used in various self-report inventories of personality such as the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory. It is one of the three dark triadic personality traits (the others being psychopathy and Machiavellianism). Except in the sense of primary narcissism or healthy self-love, narcissism is usually considered a problem in a person’s or group’s relationships with self and others. Narcissism is not the same as egocentrism.
nascent
neurodivergent
nuance
nuance | ˈnjuːɑːns |
noun – a subtle difference in or shade of meaning, expression, or sound: he was familiar with the nuances of the local dialect.
verb [with object] – give nuances to: the effect of the music is nuanced by the social situation of listeners.
origin
late 18th century: from French, ‘shade, subtlety’, from nuer ‘to shade’, based on Latin nubes ‘cloud’.
nuance – noun
the expression of subtle nuances of thought. fine distinction, subtle distinction/difference, shade, shading, gradation, variation, modulation, degree; subtlety, nicety, refinement, overtone.
numerology

Numerology is any belief in the divine or mysticalrelationship between a number and one or more coinciding events.[2] It is also the study of the numerical value of the letters in words, names, and ideas. It is often associated with the paranormal, alongside astrology and similar divinatory arts.[3]
Despite the long history of numerological ideas, the word “numerology” is not recorded in English before c.1907.[4]
The term numerologist can be used for those who place faith in numerical patterns and draw pseudo-scientific inferences from them, even if those people do not practice traditional numerology. For example, in his 1997 book Numerology: Or What Pythagoras Wrought, mathematician Underwood Dudley uses the term to discuss practitioners of the Elliott wave principle of stock market analysis.
History
Pythagoras and other philosophers of the time believed that because mathematical concepts were more “practical” (easier to regulate and classify) than physical ones, they had greater actuality. St. Augustine of Hippo (A.D. 354–430), wrote: “Numbers are the Universal language offered by the deity to humans as confirmation of the truth.” Similar to Pythagoras, he too believed that everything had numerical relationships and it was up to the mind to seek and investigate the secrets of these relationships or have them revealed by divine grace. See Numerology and the Church Fathers for early Christian beliefs on the subject.
In 325 AD, following the First Council of Nicaea, departures from the beliefs of the state church were classified as civil violations within the Roman Empire. Numerology had not found favor with the Christian authority of the day and was assigned to the field of unapproved beliefs along with astrology and other forms of divination and “magic”. Despite this religious purging, the spiritual significance assigned to the heretofore “sacred” numbers had not disappeared; several numbers, such as the “Jesus number” have been commented and analyzed by Dorotheus of Gaza and numerology still is used at least in conservative Greek Orthodox circles.[5][6] However, despite the church’s resistance to numerology, there have been arguments made for the presence of numerology in the Bible and religious architecture. For example, the numbers 3 and 7 hold strong spiritual meaning in the Bible. The most obvious example would be the creation of the world in 7 days. Jesus asked God 3 times if he could avoid crucifixion and was crucified at 3 in the afternoon. 7 is the length of famine and other God-imposed events and is sometimes followed by the number 8 as a symbol of change.[7]
Some alchemical theories were closely related to numerology. For example, Persian-Arab alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan framed his experiments in an elaborate numerology based on the names of substances in the Arabic language.[8]
Numerology is prominent in Sir Thomas Browne‘s 1658 literary Discourse The Garden of Cyrus. Throughout its pages, the author attempts to demonstrate that the number five and the related Quincunx pattern can be found throughout the arts, in design, and in nature – particularly botany.
Modern numerology has various antecedents. Ruth A. Drayer’s book, Numerology, The Power in Numbers says that around the start of the 20th century Mrs. L. Dow Balliett combined Pythagoras’ work with Biblical reference.[9] Balliett’s student, Juno Jordan, helped numerology become the system known today as Pythagorean, although Pythagoras himself had nothing to do with the system, by publishing “The Romance in Your Name” in 1965, provided a system for identifying what he called key numerological influences in names and birth dates that remains used today. Other ‘numerologists’ including Florence Campbell (1931),[10] Lynn Buess (1978), Mark Gruner (1979), Faith Javane and Dusty Bunker (1979), Kathleen Roquemore (1985) expanded on the use of numerology for assessing personality or events. These different schools of numerology give various methods for using numerology.
Lack of evidence
Skeptics argue that numbers have no occult significance and cannot by themselves influence a person’s life. Skeptics therefore regard numerology as a superstition and a pseudosciencethat uses numbers to give the subject a veneer of scientific authority.[2]
At least two studies have investigated numerological claims, both producing negative results: one in the UK in 1993,[11] and one in 2012 in Israel[12]. The UK experiment involved 96 people and found no correlation between the number seven and a self-reported psychic ability. The experiment in Israel involved a professional numerologist and 200 participants, and was designed to examine the validity of a numerological diagnosis of learning disabilities, like dyslexia and ADHD, and autism. The experiment was repeated twice and still produced negative results. The Israel’s 1st Numerplogist (1977) Estia Hoter Geza Mc.D. claims to found a profound correletion between life path manifestation failior to ones’ missing numbers at birth name. Her 1st published book present the numerical instability caused by adding an additional letter to the origin name of Jerusalem the letter TOD. (י) Estia Hoter Geza Mc.D. a Dyslexia born women and a Spiritual Psychotherapeutic teacher and trainer claimed that learning disabilities can’t be found in Numerology due to it pre-born pattern’s issue that exist in every family that at least one of its members or previous generations had Learning disabilities therefore, she claims the case study wasn’t and couldn’t have any validiation whatsoever.
Methods
Alphabetic systems
There are various numerology systems which assign numerical value to the letters of an alphabet. Examples include the Abjad numerals in Arabic, the Hebrew numerals, Armenian numerals, and Greek numerals. The practice within Jewish tradition of assigning mystical meaning to words based on their numerical values, and on connections between words of equal value, is known as gematria.
Latin alphabet systems
There are various systems of numerology that use the Latin alphabet. Different methods of interpretation exist, including Chaldean, Pythagorean, Hebraic, Helyn Hitchcock‘s method, Phonetic, Japanese, Arabic and Indian.
Pythagorean system. This method can be referred to as either Western Numerology or Pythagorean Numerology. The Greek Philosopher, Pythagoras, is known as the father of Western Numerology. Pythagoras began his theory of numbers by discovering the numerical relationship between numbers and musical notes. He found that the vibrations in stringed instruments could be mathematically explained.[13][14] The Pythagorean method uses an individual’s name and date of birth. The name number reveals the individual’s outer nature. This is the personality that they present to the outside world. To start, you need to use the individual’s full name as written on their birth certificate. Then, each letter is assigned to a number one to nine, basedon the ancient Pythagorean system. The numbers are assigned to letters of the Latin alphabetas follows:
1 = a, j, s, 2 = b, k, t, 3 = c, l, u, 4 = d, m, v, 5 = e, n, w, 6 = f, o, x, 7 = g, p, y, 8 = h, q, z, 9 = i, r,
Next, add together all of the numbers associated for each letter in your full birth name. Then, the number is reduced until you obtain a single number.
A quicker way to arrive at a single-digit summation (the digital root) is simply to take the value modulo 9, substituting a 0 result with 9 itself. As mentioned before, the single digit then arrived at is assigned a particular significance according to the method used.
When someone changes their name they will get a new name number. This is believed to change certain parts of the individual’s personality and destiny. Next, the birth number is viewed as an extension of the name number. This number represents the traits/talents that you desire to have. It is believed that your birth number reveals your inner nature and life purpose. To find your birth number you add together all the numbers in the month, day, and year you were born. Then, you reduce that number to a single digit number.
Example: James’ birthday is May 5th, 1997 – 5+5+1+9+9+7 = 36 = 3+6=9
In the Pythagorean system, there are three master numbers (11, 22, 33) which do not get reduced to a single number. Hence, if your name number or birth number comes out to one of these master numbers, then you do not combine the numbers to form a single digit. Finally, the single digit name number and birth number are assigned a particular meaning and significance based on the Pythagorean system.[15][16]
Chaldean system. The Chaldeans were ancient people who ruled Babylonia from 625–539 BC. Therefore, this system is also known as the Babylonian numerology system. Chaldean numerology is used to recognize the energy changes that occur when you or someone else speaks or thinks. The sound of someone speaking comes out in vibrations of different frequencies that affect the speaker and those around them. The Chaldean system uses the numbers 1-8. The number 9 is not used in the system because it is regarded as sacred due to its connection to infinity. The Chaldean system uses this 1-8 number system on the name that the individual is currently using because that is the energy that would currently be projected. Then, each letter is assigned to a number one to eight, based on the Chaldean numerology chart. The numbers are assigned to letters of the Latin alphabet as follows:
1 = a, q, y, i, j / 2 = b, r, k / 3 = g, c, l, s / 4 = d, m, t / 5 = e, h, n, x / 6 = u, v, w / 7 = o, z / 8 = f, p
Example: Assume James Duncan Halpert normally goes by Jim. – Jim – 1+1+4 = 6
Then, Jim Duncan Halpert’s name numbers are 6, 6, and 1.
The Chaldean system recognizes the same master numbers that were present in the Pythagorean system. These master numbers are 11, 22, and 33. The master numbers do not get reduced to single digits. In the Chaldean system, an individual’s first name is their social persona and how they present themselves in public and the energy that comes with that. The first name also indicates the individual’s personal interests and habits. The middle name is the soul energy and it reveals the truth about your inner soul and the deepest parts of yourself. The middle name shows the hidden talents, desires, and what your soul is trying to reach for. The last name is related to the domestic influence of the family.[17]
Abjad system. The Arabic system of numerology is known as Abjad notation or Abjad numerals. In this system each letter of Arabic alphabet has a numerical value. This system is the foundation of ilm-ul-cipher, the Science of Cipher, and ilm-ul-huroof, the Science of Alphabet:
ط=9 ح=8 ز=7 و=6 ه=5 د=4 ج=3 ب=2 أ=1
ص=90 ف=80 ع=70 س=60 ن=50 م=40 ل=30 ك=20 ي=10
ظ=900 ض=800 ذ=700 خ=600 ث=500 ت=400 ش=300 ر=200 ق=100
غ=1000
Chinese numerology | Numbers in Chinese culture
Some Chinese assign a different set of meanings to the numbers and certain number combinations are considered luckier than others. In general, even numbers are considered lucky, since it is believed that good luck comes in pairs.
Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), and its associated fields such as acupuncture, base their system on mystical numerical associations, such as the “12 vessels circulating blood and air corresponding to the 12 rivers flowing toward the Central Kingdom; and 365 parts of the body, one for each day of the year” being the basis of locating acupuncture points.[18]
Chinese number definitions. Cantonese frequently associate numbers with the following connotations (based on its sound), which may differ in other varieties of Chinese:
- 一 [jɐ́t] – sure
- 二 [ji̭ː] – easy 易 [ji̭ː]
- 三 [sáːm] – live 生 [sáːŋ] but it can also be seen as a halved eight when using Arabic numerals (3) (8) and so considered unlucky.
- 四 [sēi] – considered unlucky since 4 is a homophone with the word for death or suffering 死 [sěi], yet only in the Shanghainese, it is a homophone of water (水) and is considered lucky because water is associated with money.
- 五 [ŋ̬] – the self, me, myself 吾 [ŋ̭], nothing, never 唔 [ŋ, m] in the Shanghainese, it is a homophone of fish (鱼)
- 六 [lùːk] – easy and smooth, all the way
- 七 [tsʰɐ́t] – a slang/vulgar word in Cantonese.
- 八 [pāːt] – sudden fortune, prosperity 發 [fāːt]
- 九 [kɐ̌u] – long in time 久 [kɐ̌u], enough 夠 [kɐ̄u] or a slang/vulgar word derived from dog 狗 [kɐ̌u] in Cantonese
Some “lucky number” combinations include:
99 – doubly long in time, hence eternal; used in the name of a popular Chinese American supermarket chain, 99 Ranch Market.
168 – many premium-pay telephone numbers in China begin with this number, which is considered lucky. It is also the name of a motel chain in China (Motel 168).
888 – Three times the prosperity, means “wealthy wealthy wealthy”.
6 = U, V, W
There is no assignment for the number 9. Numerologists analyze double-digit numbers from 10 to 99.
Other uses of the term
In science. Scientific theories are sometimes labeled “numerology” if their primary inspiration appears to be a set of patterns rather than scientific observations. This colloquial use of the term is quite common within the scientific community and it is mostly used to dismiss a theory as questionable science.
The best known example of “numerology” in science involves the coincidental resemblance of certain large numbers that intrigued such eminent men as mathematical physicist Paul Dirac, mathematician Hermann Weyl and astronomer Arthur Stanley Eddington. These numerical coincidences refer to such quantities as the ratio of the age of the universe to the atomic unit of time, the number of electrons in the universe, and the difference in strengths between gravity and the electric force for the electron and proton. (“Is the Universe Fine Tuned for Us?”, Stenger, V.J., page 3[19]).
The discovery of atomic triads, an early attempt to sort the elements into some logical order by their physical properties, was once considered a form of numerology, and yet ultimately led to the construction of the periodic table. Here the atomic weight of the lightest element and the heaviest are summed, and averaged, and the average is found to be very close to that of the intermediate weight element. This didn’t work with every triplet in the same group, but worked often enough to allow later workers to create generalizations.
Large number co-incidences continue to fascinate many mathematical physicists. For instance, James G. Gilson has constructed a “Quantum Theory of Gravity” based loosely on Dirac’s large number hypothesis.[20]
Wolfgang Pauli was also fascinated by the appearance of certain numbers, including 137, in physics.[21]
British mathematician I. J. Good wrote:
There have been a few examples of numerology that have led to theories that transformed society: see the mention of Kirchhoff and Balmer in Good (1962, p. 316) … and one can well include Kepler on account of his third law. It would be fair enough to say that numerology was the origin of the theories of electromagnetism, quantum mechanics, gravitation…. So I intend no disparagement when I describe a formula as numerological. When a numerological formula is proposed, then we may ask whether it is correct. … I think an appropriate definition of correctness is that the formula has a good explanation, in a Platonic sense, that is, the explanation could be based on a good theory that is not yet known but ‘exists’ in the universe of possible reasonable ideas.
In gambling
Some players apply methods that are sometimes called numerological in games which involve numbers but no skill, such as bingo, roulette, keno, or lotteries. Although no strategy can be applied to increase odds in such games, players may employ “lucky numbers” to find what they think will help them. There is no evidence that any such “numerological strategy” yields a better outcome than pure chance, but the methods are sometimes encouraged, e.g. by casino owners.[23]
In popular culture. Numerology is a popular plot device in fiction. Sometimes it is a casual element used for comic effect, such as in an episode titled “The Séance” of the 1950s TV sitcom I Love Lucy, where Lucy dabbles in numerology. Sometimes it is a central motif of the storyline, such as the movie π, in which the protagonist meets a numerologist searching for hidden numerical patterns in the Torah; the TV show Touch which focuses almost entirely on the role of numerology in the events and coincidences of any person’s life; and the movie The Number 23, based on claimed mysteries of the number 23 (itself based on the Law of Fives).
Numerology is a topic taught in Arithmancy class in the Harry Potter series of books. In Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, the third book of the series, Arithmancy is offered as an elective course. In Harry Potter’s world, arithmancy was used as the practice of assigning numerical value to words in order to predict the future.[24]
nuture
verb
1 – giving birth to children and nurturing them into adulthood: bring up, care for, provide for, take care of, attend to, look after, rear, support, raise, foster, parent, mother, tend; feed, nourish; rare provender. ANTONYMS neglect.
2 – we’ve nurtured different varieties of plant: cultivate, grow, keep, tend.
3 – my father nurtured my love of art: encourage, promote, stimulate, develop, foster, cultivate, further, advance, boost, forward, contribute to, be conducive to, assist, help, aid, abet, strengthen, advantage, fuel. ANTONYMS hinder.
noun
1 – we are all what nature and nurture have made us: upbringing, bringing up, care, fostering, tending, rearing, raising, training, education. ANTONYMS nature, innate disposition, inherited characteristics.
2 – the nurture of ideas: encouragement, promotion, fostering, development, cultivation, boosting, furtherance, advancement.3 a good base camp where one may receive nurture and rest: food, nourishment, nutrition, nutriment, diet, sustenance, feeding, subsistence; rare alimentation.
nature versus nurture
The nature versus nurture debate involves whether human behavior is determined by the environment, either prenatal or during a person’s life, or by a person’s genes. The alliterative expression “nature and nurture” in English has been in use since at least the Elizabethan period[1] and goes back to medieval French.[2]
The combination of the two concepts as complementary is ancient (Greek: ἁπό φύσεως καὶ εὐτροφίας[3]). Nature is what we think of as pre-wiring and is influenced by genetic inheritance and other biological factors. Nurture is generally taken as the influence of external factors after conception e.g. the product of exposure, experience and learning on an individual.[4]
The phrase in its modern sense was popularized by the English Victorian polymath Francis Galton, the modern founder of eugenics and behavioral genetics, discussing the influence of heredity and environment on social advancement.[5][6][7] Galton was influenced by the book On the Origin of Species written by his half-cousin, Charles Darwin.
The view that humans acquire all or almost all their behavioral traits from “nurture” was termed tabula rasa (“blank slate”) by John Locke in 1690. A “blank slate view” in human developmental psychology assuming that human behavioral traits develop almost exclusively from environmental influences, was widely held during much of the 20th century (sometimes termed “blank-slatism”). The debate between “blank-slate” denial of the influence of heritability, and the view admitting both environmental and heritable traits, has often been cast in terms of nature versus nurture. These two conflicting approaches to human development were at the core of an ideological dispute over research agendas throughout the second half of the 20th century. As both “nature” and “nurture” factors were found to contribute substantially, often in an inextricable manner, such views were seen as naive or outdated by most scholars of human development by the 2000s.[8][9][10][11][12][13]
The strong dichotomy of nature versus nurture has thus been claimed to have limited relevance in some fields of research. Close feedback loops have been found in which “nature” and “nurture” influence one another constantly, as seen in self-domestication. In ecology and behavioral genetics, researchers think nurture has an essential influence on nature.[14][15] Similarly in other fields, the dividing line between an inherited and an acquired trait becomes unclear, as in epigenetics[16] or fetal development.[17][18]
open
open | ˈəʊp(ə)n | adjective
1 allowing access, passage, or a view through an empty space; not closed or blocked: he climbed through the open window | she was put in a cubicle with the curtains left open | the pass is kept open by snowploughs.
• (of a container) not fastened or sealed: the case burst open and its contents flew all over the place.
• (of a garment or its fastenings) not done up: his tie was knotted below the open collar of his shirt.
• (of the mouth or eyes) with lips or lids parted: his eyes were open but he could see nothing | [as complement] : the boy’s mouth dropped open in shock.
• (of a fabric) loosely knitted or woven.
• (of the bowels) not constipated.
2 [attributive] exposed to the air or to view; not covered: an open fire burned in the grate | he crossed the ocean in an open boat.
• (of land) not covered with buildings or trees: the plans allow increasing numbers of new houses in open countryside.
• [as complement] damaged by a deep cut in the surface: he had his arm slashed open.
• (open to) likely to suffer from or be affected by; vulnerable or subject to: the system is open to abuse.
• (of a goalmouth or other object of attack in a game) unprotected by defenders.
• (of a town or city) officially declared to be undefended, and so immune under international law from bombardment.
3 with the outer edges or sides drawn away from each other; unfolded or spread out: the trees had buds and a few open flowers.
• (of a book or file) with the covers parted allowing it to be read: she was copying verses from an open Bible.
• (of a hand) not clenched into a fist.
4 [predicative] (of a business, place of entertainment, etc.) admitting customers or visitors; available for business: the shop stays open until 9 p.m | parts of the castle are open to the public.
• (of a bank account) available for transactions: I withdrew all my money except the minimum required to keep the account open.
• (of a phone line) ready to take calls: our free advice line is open from 8.30 to 17.30.
5 freely available or accessible; unrestricted: the service is open to all students | initially members were given preference, but now bookings are open for everyone.
• (of an offer or opportunity) still available: the offer is open while stocks last | we need to consider what options are left open.
• (also Open) with no restrictions on those allowed to participate: open discussion meetings | each horse had won two open races.
• (also Open) (of a victor) having won an open competition: an Open champion.
• (of a ticket) not restricted as to day of travel: I have an open ticket, so I can travel any day I like.
• British English (of a cheque) not crossed.
• Mathematics (of a set) not containing any of its limit points.
6 not concealing one’s thoughts or feelings; frank and communicative: she behaved in an open and cheerful manner | I was quite open about my views.
• not concealed: his eyes showed open admiration as they swept over her.
• [attributive] (of conflict) fully developed and unconcealed: the dispute erupted into open war.
• welcoming public discussion, criticism, and inquiry: the party’s commitment to open government.
• (of a game or style of play) characterized by action which is spread out over the field: both sides played fast, open rugby to produce a high-scoring game.
7 (of a matter or decision) not finally settled; still admitting of debate: students’ choice of degree can be kept open until the second year.
• (of the mind) accessible to new ideas: I’m keeping an open mind about my future.
• (open to) receptive to: the union was open to suggestions for improvements.
• (open to) admitting of; making possible: the message is open to different interpretations.
8 Music (of a string) allowed to vibrate along its whole length.
• (of a note) sounded from an open string or pipe.
• (of a pipe) unstopped at each end.
9 Phonetics (of a vowel) produced with a relatively wide opening of the mouth and the tongue kept low.
• (of a syllable) ending in a vowel.
10 (of an electric circuit) having a break in the conducting path.
verb [with object]
1 move (a door or window) so as to leave a space allowing access and vision: she opened the door and went in | [no object, in imperative] : ‘Open up!’ he said.
• [no object] (of a door or window) be moved to leave a space allowing access: the door opened and a man came out.
• undo or remove the lid, cover, or fastening of (a container, package, letter, etc.) to get access to the contents: he opened a bottle inexpertly, spilling some of the wine | can we open the presents now?.
• part the lips or lids of (one’s mouth or eye): she opened her mouth to argue.
• [no object] (of the mouth or eyes) have the lips or lids parted: her eyes slowly opened.
• [no object] come apart; lose or lack its protective covering: old wounds opened and I bled a little bit.
• cause evacuation of (the bowels).
2 unfold or be unfolded; spread out: [with object] : the eagle opened its wings and circled up into the air | the tail looks like a fan when it is opened out fully | [no object] : the flowers only open during bright weather.
• [with object] part the covers of (a book or file) to read it: she opened her book at the prologue.
• [no object, with adverbial] (of a prospect) extend into view: stop to marvel at the views that open out below.
• [with object] Nautical achieve a clear view of (a place) by sailing past a headland or other obstruction: we shall open Torbay shortly.
3 make formally ready for customers, visitors, or business: she raised £731 by opening her home and selling coffee and tea.
• [no object] be made ready for customers, visitors, or business: the shops didn’t open until 10.
• ceremonially declare (a building, road, etc.) to be completed and ready for use: we will have to wait until a new bypass is opened before we can tackle the problem of congestion | the Queen opened the power plant on 17 October 1956.
4 formally establish or begin (a new business or enterprise): she began to teach and opened her own school | we opened up a branch in Madrid.
• [no object] (of an event or a new business or enterprise) be formally established or started: two new restaurants open this week | the incident occurred just before the Olympic Games were due to open.
• take the action required to begin using: they have the £10 necessary to open a savings account | click twice to open a file for the software selected.
5 make (something) present, available, or accessible: a civil war there has opened the possibility of a peace treaty with the Federation.
6 [no object] (of a piece of writing or music) begin: the chapter opens with a discussion of Anglo-Irish relations.
• (of a counsel in a law court) make a preliminary statement in a case before calling witnesses: Comyn opened for the plaintiff | [with object] : Bernard had opened the case.
• Cricket another term for open the batting
• [with object] Bridge make (the first bid) in the auction: West opened 2NT | [no object] : do not open with fewer than twelve points.
7 break the conducting path of (an electric circuit): the switch opens the motor circuit.
• [no object] (of an electric circuit or device) suffer a break in its conducting path: the problem was caused when a switch opened at the substation.
noun
1 (the open) outdoors, especially in an exposed or unprotected setting: guests were sitting in the open on the terrace.
• (in/into the open) not subject to concealment; made public: we have never let our dislike for him come into the open.
2 (Open) a championship or competition with no restrictions on who may compete: his victory in the 2003 Australian Open.
3 an accidental break in the conducting path for an electric current.
PHRASES
be open with
speak frankly to: I had always been completely open with my mother.
an open book
a person or thing that is easy to understand or about which everything is known: her mind was an open book to him.
in open court
in a court of law, before the judge and the public: judgement was delivered in open court.
open-and-shut | ˌəʊpənən(d)ˈʃʌt |
(of a case or argument) admitting no doubt or dispute; straightforward: he thought it was an open-and-shut case until the prime suspect was murdered.
open the batting
Cricket play as one of the pair of batters who begin a side’s innings.
open fire
begin to shoot: troops opened fire on crowds armed with staves and knives.
open one’s mind
be receptive: open your mind to what is going on around you | she had opened her mind to new things.
open the way (also open a way)
remove an obstacle or hindrance to allow progress: if we win then it will open the way for improved pay | this opened the way to a career in government.
phrasal verbs
open into (also open on to)
(of a room, threshold, or path) give access to: the kitchen opened into a pleasant sitting room | the path opened out into a glade.
open to
(open someone to something) make someone vulnerable to something: the process is going to open them to a legal threat.
open up
1 (also open out British English) become more communicative or confiding: neither one of them had opened up to me about their troubles | he was very reserved and only opened out to her slowly.
2 become present, available, or accessible: a new and dramatic phase was opening up.
• (open something up, open up something) make something present, available, or accessible: new technologies open up thousands of different opportunities.
3 begin shooting: the enemy artillery had opened up.
4 (open something up, open up something) informal accelerate a motor vehicle by widening the throttle of its engine: Sam took me back on the motorway to open her up.
5 (open something up, open up something) (of a player or team) create an advantage for one’s side: he opened up a lead of 14–8.
derivatives
openable adjective
origin
Old English open (adjective), openian (verb), of Germanic origin; related to Dutch open and German offen, from the root of the adverb up.
outcome
outcome | ˈaʊtkʌm |
noun
the way a thing turns out; a consequence: it is the outcome of the vote that counts.
patron
patron | ˈpeɪtr(ə)n |
noun
1. a person who gives financial or other support to a person, organization, or cause: a celebrated patron of the arts. – a distinguished person who takes an honorary position in a charity: the Mental Health Foundation, of which Her Royal Highness is Patron.
2. a customer of a shop, restaurant, etc., especially a regular one: we surveyed the plushness of the hotel and its sleek, well-dressed patrons.
3. Roman history a patrician in relation to a client.
– the former owner and (frequently) protector of a freed slave.
4. British English, mainly historical a person or institution with the right to grant a benefice to a member of the clergy.
origin
Middle English: from Old French, from Latin patronus ‘protector of clients, defender’, from pater, patr- ‘father’.
partisan
noun
1 Conservative partisans claimed that television news was biased against their party: supporter, follower, adherent, devotee, champion, backer, upholder, promoter, fanatic, fan, enthusiast, stalwart, zealot, disciple, votary; North American booster, cohort; North American informal rooter; rare janissary, sectary.
2 the partisans opened fire from the woods: guerrilla, freedom fighter, resistance fighter, member of the resistance, underground fighter, irregular soldier, irregular; terrorist.adjective the government had adopted a blatantly partisan attitude: biased, prejudiced, one-sided, coloured, discriminatory, preferential, partial, interested, parti pris, bigoted, sectarian, factional, unjust, unfair, inequitable, unbalanced. ANTONYMS impartial, unbiased.
personality disorder
Personality disorders (PD) are a class of mental ddisorders characterized by enduring maladaptive patterns of behavior, cognition, and inner experience, exhibited across many contexts and deviating from those accepted by the individual’s culture. These patterns develop early, are inflexible, and are associated with significant distress or disability. The definitions may vary somewhat, according to source.[2][3][4] Official criteria for diagnosing personality disorders are listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) and the fifth chapter of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD).
Personality, defined psychologically, is the set of enduring behavioral and mental traits that distinguish individual humans. Hence, personality disorders are defined by experiences and behaviors that differ from social norms and expectations. Those diagnosed with a personality disorder may experience difficulties in cognition, emotiveness, interpersonal functioning, or impulse control. In general, personality disorders are diagnosed in 40–60% of psychiatric patients, making them the most frequent of psychiatric diagnoses.[5]
Personality disorders are characterized by an enduring collection of behavioral patterns often associated with considerable personal, social, and occupational disruption. Personality disorders are also inflexible and pervasive across many situations, largely due to the fact that such behavior may be ego-syntonic (i.e. the patterns are consistent with the ego integrity of the individual) and are therefore perceived to be appropriate by that individual. This behavior can result in maladaptive coping skills and may lead to personal problems that induce extreme anxiety, distress, or depression. These behaviour patterns are typically recognized in adolescence, the beginning of adulthood or sometimes even childhood and often have a pervasive negative impact on the quality of life.[2][6][7]
Many issues occur with classifying a personality disorder. Because the theory and diagnosis of personality disorders occur within prevailing cultural expectations, their validity is contested by some experts on the basis of inevitable subjectivity. They argue that the theory and diagnosis of personality disorders are based strictly on social, or even sociopolitical and economic considerations.[8]
physical
physical | ˈfɪzɪkl | adjective
1 relating to the body as opposed to the mind: a range of physical and mental challenges.
• involving bodily contact or activity: less physical sports such as bowls | a physical relationship.
2 relating to things perceived through the senses as opposed to the mind; tangible or concrete: the physical world.
3 relating to physics or the operation of natural forces generally: physical laws.
noun
1 (also physical examination) a medical examination to determine a person’s bodily fitness: at fifty-something, each year’s physical was a kind of lottery.
2 (physicals) Stock market stocks held in actual commodities for immediate exchange, for example as opposed to futures: the exchange of futures for physicals.
phrases
get physical
1 informal become aggressive or violent: now the players are even getting physical with the refs.
2 become sexually intimate with someone: I had a strong feeling that, by the end of the day, she and I would get physical.
derivatives
physicalness noun
origin
late Middle English (in the sense ‘relating to medicine’): from medieval Latin physicalis, from Latin physica ‘things relating to nature’ (see physic). Sense 2 dates from the late 16th century and sense 1 from the late 18th century.
physical | adjective
1 mental and physical well-being. bodily, corporeal, corporal, fleshly, in the flesh; rare somatic. ANTONYMS mental.
2 hard physical work. manual, labouring, blue-collar. ANTONYMS clerical; intellectual.
3 our spiritual relationship affects our physical relationship. earthly, worldly, terrestrial, earthbound, non-spiritual, unspiritual, material; carnal, fleshly, sensual; mortal, human, temporal; brutish, bestial, animal, base, sordid; secular, lay, mundane. ANTONYMS spiritual.
4 everything physical in the universe. material, substantial, solid, concrete, tangible, palpable, visible, real, actual. ANTONYMS abstract, intangible.
psychopathic
psychopathic | ˌsʌɪkəˈpaθɪk |
adjective – affected or marked by a persistent pattern of antisocial, impulsive, manipulative, and sometimes aggressive behaviour (not in current technical use): a psychopathic disorder.
• derogatory characterized by or exhibiting irrationally aggressive or obsessive behaviour: an obsessive attention to detail that looked almost psychopathic.
derivatives
psychopathically | ˌsʌɪkəˈpaθɪk(ə)li | adverb
populism
populism | ˈpɒpjʊlɪz(ə)m | noun [mass noun] support for the concerns of ordinary people: it is clear that your populism identifies with the folks on the bottom of the ladder | the Finance Minister performed a commendable balancing act, combining populism with prudence. • the quality of appealing to or being aimed at ordinary people: art museums did not gain bigger audiences through a new populism.
populist | ˈpɒpjʊlɪst | noun a member or adherent of a political party seeking to represent the interests of ordinary people. • a person who supports or seeks to appeal to the concerns of ordinary people: she is something of a populist—her views on immigration resemble those of the right-wing tabloid press. adjective relating to or characteristic of a populist or populists: populist tabloid newspapers. DERIVATIVES populistic | pɒpjʊˈlɪstɪk | adjective ORIGIN late 19th century (originally referring to a US political party): from Latin populus ‘people’ + -ist.
school
school | noun
School used broadly, can describe a group of people united by shared principles or experiences. But the word ‘school’ generally refers to an institution or building where people receive education, particularly children and young people. It can also refer to the period of instruction, the staff and students, or even a particular field of study.
Place of Education:
This is the most common understanding of school – a place where students learn under the guidance of teachers.
Educational Institution:
This encompasses the entire system, including the buildings, staff, and curriculum.
Period of Instruction:
“School” can refer to the time spent in classes, like the school year or a specific class period.
Staff and Students:
The term can also refer to the people involved in the educational process, including teachers and students.
Specific Fields of Study:
It can refer to a particular department or faculty within a larger institution, like “a school of law”or “School of Arts & Culture”.
Group of People:
In a less common usage, “school” can refer to a group of people who share a common belief, teaching, or experience, such as a “school of thought”.
Origin of the word:
The word “school” originates from the Greek word “schole,” which meant “leisure,” and later evolved to refer to a place of learning, according to Merriam-Webster.
schadenfreude
Schadenfreude (/ˈʃɑːdənfrɔɪdə/; German: [ˈʃaːdn̩ˌfʁɔʏ̯də] (listen); lit. ‘harm-joy’) is the experience of pleasure, joy, or self-satisfaction that comes from learning of or witnessing the troubles, failures, or humiliation of another.
Schadenfreude is a complex emotion, where rather than feeling sympathy toward someone’s misfortune, schadenfreude evokes joyful feelings that take pleasure from watching someone fail. This emotion is displayed more in children than adults. However, adults also experience schadenfreude, although generally, they conceal it.[1]
Etymology
Schadenfreude is borrowed from German. It is a compound of Schaden, “damage, harm”, and Freude, “joy”. The German word was first mentioned in English texts in 1852 and 1867, and first used in English running text in 1895.[2] In German, it was first attested in the 1740s.[3]
Although common nouns normally are not capitalised in English, schadenfreude sometimes is capitalised following the German convention.
Psychological causes of schadenfreude
Researchers have found that there are three driving forces behind schadenfreude: aggression, rivalry, and justice. Several studies have produced evidence that self-esteem has a negative relationship with the frequency and intensity of schadenfreude experienced by an individual.[4] This means that the less self-esteem an individual has, the more frequently or more intensely they will experience schadenfreude.
The reverse also holds true – those with higher self-esteem experience schadenfreude less frequently or with less emotional intensity.[4]
It is hypothesized that this inverse relationship is mediated through the human psychological inclination to define and protect their self- and in-group- identity or self-conception.[4] Specifically, for someone with high self-esteem, seeing another person fail may still bring them a small (but effectively negligible) surge of confidence because the observer’s high self-esteem significantly lowers the threat they believe the visibly-failing human poses to their status or identity. Since this confident individual perceives that, regardless of circumstances, the successes and failures of the other person will have little impact on their own status or well-being, they have very little emotional investment in how the other person fares, be it positive or negative.
Conversely, for someone with low self-esteem, someone who is more successful poses a threat to their sense of self, and seeing this ‘mighty’ person fall can be a source of comfort because they perceive a relative improvement in their internal or in-group standing.[5]
- Aggression-based schadenfreude primarily involves group identity. The joy of observing the suffering of others comes from the observer’s feeling that the other’s failure represents an improvement or validation of their own group’s (in-group) status in relation to external (out-groups) groups. This is, essentially, schadenfreude based on group versus group status.
- Rivalry-based schadenfreude is individualistic and related to interpersonal competition. It arises from a desire to stand out from and out-perform one’s peers. This is schadenfreude based on another person’s misfortune eliciting pleasure because the observer now feels better about their personal identity and self-worth, instead of their group identity.
- Justice-based schadenfreude comes from seeing that behavior seen as immoral or “bad” is punished. It is the pleasure associated with seeing a “bad” person being harmed or receiving retribution. Schadenfreude is experienced here because it makes people feel that fairness has been restored for a previously un-punished wrong.
social status
Social status is the relative level of respect, honor, assumed competence, and deference accorded to people, groups, and organizations in a society.[1][2] Some writers have also referred to a socially valued role or category a person occupies as a “status” (e.g., gender, race, having a criminal conviction, etc.).[3] Status is based in beliefs about who members of a society believe holds comparatively more or less social value.[4]By definition, these beliefs are broadly shared among members of a society. As such, people use status hierarchies to allocate resources, leadership positions, and other forms of power. In so doing, these shared cultural beliefs make unequal distributions of resources and powerappear natural and fair, supporting systems of social stratification.[5] Status hierarchies appear to be universal across human societies, affording valued benefits to those who occupy the higher rungs, such as better health, social approval, resources, influence, and freedom.[2]
Status hierarchies depend primarily on the possession and use of status symbols. These are cues people use to determine how much status a person holds and how they should be treated.[6] Such symbols can include the possession of socially valuable attributes, like being conventionally beautiful or having a prestigious degree. Other status symbols include wealth and its display through conspicuous consumption.[7] Status in face-to-face interaction can also be conveyed through certain controllable behaviors, such as assertive speech, posture,[8] and emotional displays.[9]
spectacle in society
scorn
scorn noun he was unable to hide the scorn in his voice: contempt, derision, contemptuousness, disdain, derisiveness, scornfulness, mockery, sneering, scoffing; archaic contumely, despite. ANTONYMS admiration, respectPHRASES pour scorn on he pours scorn on the idea that any such thing could really exist: disparage, denigrate, run down, deprecate, depreciate, downgrade, play down, belittle, trivialize, minimize, make light of, treat lightly, undervalue, underrate, underestimate; scoff at, sneer at, laugh at, laugh off, mock, ridicule, deride, dismiss, scorn, cast aspersions on, discredit; North American slur; informal do down, do a hatchet job on, take to pieces, pull apart, pick holes in, drag through the mud, have a go at, hit out at, knock, slam, pan, bash, bad-mouth, pooh-pooh, look down one’s nose at; British informal rubbish, slate, slag off; archaic hold cheap; rare asperse, derogate, misprize, minify.verb1 critics scorned the painting, but it was very popular with those who attended the exhibition | his father was a man who scorned tradition: deride, be contemptuous about, hold in contempt, treat with contempt, pour/heap scorn on, be scornful about, look down on, look down one’s nose at, disdain, curl one’s lip at, mock, scoff at, sneer at, sniff at, jeer at, laugh at, laugh out of court; disparage, slight; dismiss, cock a snook at, spit in the eye/face of, spit on, thumb one’s nose at; informal turn one’s nose up at, blow raspberries at; North American informal give the Bronx cheer to; British vulgar slang piss on/over; archaic contemn; rare misprize, scout. ANTONYMS admire, respect2 ‘I am a woman scorned,’ she thought: spurn, rebuff, reject, ignore, shun, snub.3 even at her lowest ebb, she would have scorned to stoop to such tactics: refuse to, refrain from, not lower oneself to; be above, consider it beneath one.
socio- | ˈsəʊsɪəʊ, ˈsəʊʃɪəʊ | combining form
1 relating to society; society and …: socio-economic.
2 relating to sociology; sociology and …: sociolinguistics.
sociology | ˌsəʊʃɪˈɒlədʒi, ˌsəʊsɪˈɒlədʒi |
noun [mass noun]
the study of the development, structure, and functioning of human society.
• the study of social problems.
derivatives
sociologically | səʊʃɪəˈlɒdʒɪk(ə)li, səʊsɪəˈlɒdʒɪk(ə)li | adverb
origin; mid 19th century: from French sociologie (see socio-, -logy).
Network sovereignty
In internet governance, network sovereignty (also called digital sovereignty or cyber sovereignty) is the effort of a governing entity, such as a state, to create boundaries on a network and then exert a form of control, often in the form of law enforcement over such boundaries.[1][2][3][4]
Much like states invoke sole power over their physical territorial boundaries, state sovereignty, such governing bodies also invoke sole power within the network boundaries they set and claim network sovereignty. In the context of the Internet, the intention is to govern the web and control it within the borders of the state. Often, that is witnessed as states seeking to control all information flowing into and within their borders.[5][6]
The concept stems from questions of how states can maintain law over an entity such like the Internet, whose infrastructure exists in real space, but its entity itself exists in the intangible cyberspace. According to Joel Reidenberg, “Networks have key attributes of sovereignty: participant/citizens via service provider membership agreements, ‘constitutional’ rights through contractual terms of service, and police powers through taxation (fees) and system operator sanctions.”[7]Indeed, many countries have pushed to ensure the protection of their citizens’ privacy and of internal business longevity by data protection and information privacy legislation (see the EU‘s Data Protection Directive, the UK‘s Data Protection Act 1998).
Network sovereignty has implications for state security, Internet governance, and the users of the Internet’s national and international networks.
subversive
subversive | səbˈvəːsɪv |
adjective
seeking or intended to subvert an established system or institution: subversive literature.
noun
a subversive person: they and their companions were identified as subversives.
derivatives
subversively | səbˈvəːsɪvli | adverb
subversiveness noun
origin
mid 17th century: from medieval Latin subversivus, from the verb subvertere (see subvert).
subversive
adjective
he was arrested and charged with subversive activities. disruptive, troublemaking, inflammatory, insurgent, insurrectionary, insurrectionist, agitational, rabble-rousing; seditious, revolutionary, treasonous, treacherous, mutinous, rebellious, rebel, renegade, unpatriotic, dissident, disloyal, perfidious, insubordinate, underground, undermining, corrupting, discrediting, destructive, harmful.
noun
she was designated as a dangerous subversive. troublemaker, dissident, agitator, disruptor, revolutionary, revolutionist, insurgent, insurrectionist, insurrectionary, renegade, rebel, mutineer, traitor.
simple
simple | ˈsɪmp(ə)l | adjective (simpler, simplest)
1 easily understood or done; presenting no difficulty: a simple solution | camcorders are now so simple to operate. • [attributive] used to emphasize the fundamental and straightforward nature of something: the simple truth.
2 plain, basic, or uncomplicated in form, nature, or design; without much decoration or ornamentation: a simple white blouse | the house is furnished in a simple country style. • humble and unpretentious: a quiet unassuming man with simple tastes.
3 composed of a single element; not compound. • Mathematics denoting a group that has no proper normal subgroup. • Botany (of a leaf or stem) not divided or branched. • (of a lens, microscope, etc.) consisting of a single lens or component. • (in English grammar) denoting a tense formed without an auxiliary, for example sang as opposed to was singing. • (of interest) payable on the sum loaned only. Compare with compound1.
4 of very low intelligence. noun mainly historical
a medicinal herb, or a medicine made from one: the gatherers of simples. exclamation used to convey that something is very straightforward: I don’t overanalyse. I listen, I like, I buy. Simple! DERIVATIVES simpleness noun ORIGIN Middle English: from Old French, from Latin simplus. The noun sense (mid 16th century) originally referred to a medicine made from one constituent, especially from one plant.
simple adjective
1 It sounds difficult I know, but it’s really pretty simple: straightforward, easy, uncomplicated, uninvolved, effortless, painless, manageable, undemanding, unexacting, elementary, child’s play, plain sailing, a five-finger exercise, nothing; informal as easy as falling off a log, as easy as pie, as easy as ABC, a piece of cake, a cinch, a snip, easy-peasy, no sweat, a doddle, a pushover, money for old rope, money for jam, kids’ stuff, a breeze, a doss, a cakewalk; North American informal duck soup, a snap; Australian New Zealand informal a bludge, a snack; South African informal a piece of old tackle; British vulgar slang a piece of piss.
ANTONYMS difficult, hard, demanding, complicated
2 The chapter on finance explains in simple language how a profit and loss account is compiled: clear, plain, straightforward, clearly expressed, intelligible, comprehensible, uncomplicated, understandable, (words) of one syllable, lucid, coherent, unambiguous, direct, accessible, uninvolved; informal user-friendly.
ANTONYMS complex
3 A simple white blouse | a simple, square house in Bath stone: plain, unadorned, undecorated, unembellished, unornamented, without ornament/ornamentation, unelaborate, unpretentious, unostentatious, unfussy, no-nonsense, basic, modest, unsophisticated, penny plain, without frills, honest, homely, homespun, everyday, workaday; stark, severe, spartan, austere, chaste, spare, bare; muted, unpatterned, patternless; classic, understated, uncluttered, clean, restrained;
North American homestyle; informal no-frills.
ANTONYMS fancy, elaborate
4 the simple fact is that stray dogs are a menace | she was overcome at last by simple exhaustion: basic, fundamental; mere, sheer, pure, pure and simple.
5 she wondered how he would react if she told him the simple truth: candid, frank, honest, direct, sincere, plain, absolute, unqualified, bald, stark, naked, blunt, unadorned, unvarnished, unembellished.
6 simple country people: unpretentious, unsophisticated, ordinary, unaffected, unassuming, natural, honest-to-goodness, modest, homely, wholesome, humble, quiet, lowly, rustic; innocent, artless, guileless, childlike, naive, ingenuous, gullible, inexperienced; North American cracker-barrel; informal green.
ANTONYMS pretentious, affected
7 simple chemical substances: non-compound, non-complex, uncompounded, uncombined, unmixed, unblended, unalloyed, pure, basic, single, elementary, fundamental. ANTONYMS compound
status quo
Status quo or Statu quo is a Latin phrase meaning the existing state of affairs, particularly with regard to social or political issues.[1] In the sociological sense, it generally applies to maintaining or changing existing social structure and/or values.[2] With regard to policy debate, the status quo refers to how conditions are at the time and how the affirmative teamcan solve these conditions for example “The countries are now trying to maintain a status quo with regards to their nuclear arsenal which will help them if the situation gets any worse.”[3]
Status quo is the nominative form of the ablative in the prepositional Latin phrase “in statu quo” – literally “in the state in which”, which itself is a shortening of the original phrase in statu quo res erant ante bellum, meaning “in the state in which things were before the war”. To maintain the status quo is to keep things the way they presently are. The related phrase status quo ante, literally “the state in which before”,[4] means “the state of affairs that existed previously”.[4]
Political usage
Social movements are an example of times when the status quo might be challenged. In these instances, status quo refers to the current state of affairs around a particular issue, or perhaps the current culture or social climate of an entire society or nation.[5] The status quo is generally perceived negatively by supporters of the social movement, and people who want to maintain the status quo can be seen as being resistant to progress.[6]
Politicians sometimes refer to a status quo, though such usage is sometimes accused of being a policy of deliberate ambiguity, namely, referring to the “status quo” rather than formalizing or defining the said status. Clark Kerr is reported to have said: “The status quo is the only solution that cannot be vetoed“.[7]
Karl Marx viewed organized religion as a means for the bourgeoisie to keep the proletariatcontent with an unequal status quo.[8]
tribulation
tribulation | ˌtrɪbjʊˈleɪʃn | (usually tribulations) noun a cause of great trouble or suffering: the tribulations of being a megastar. • [mass noun] a state of great trouble or suffering: his time of tribulation was just beginning. origin Middle English: via Old French from ecclesiastical Latin tribulatio(n-), from Latin tribulare ‘press, oppress’, from tribulum ‘threshing board (constructed of sharp points)’, based on terere ‘rub’.
trust
trust: noun
1 a relationship built on mutual trust and respect. confidence, belief, faith, freedom from suspicion/doubt, sureness, certainty, certitude, assurance, conviction, credence, reliance. ANTONYMS distrust, mistrust, scepticism.
2 a position of trust. responsibility, duty, obligation.
3 the money is to be held in trust for his son. safe keeping, keeping, protection, charge, care, custody; trusteeship, guardianship.
verb
1 I should never have trusted her. have faith in, put/place one’s trust in, have (every) confidence in, believe in, pin one’s hopes/faith on; rely on, depend on, bank on, count on, be sure of, be convinced by, swear by; confide in.
ANTONYMS distrust, mistrust, doubt.
2 I trust we shall meet again. hope, expect, think likely, dare say, imagine, believe, assume, presume, suppose, take it; informal guess.
3 can I trust you with my car?. entrust, put in the hands of, allow to look after/use.
4 they don’t like to trust their money to anyone outside the family. consign, commit, give, hand over, turn over, assign, commend.
A trustee, or fiduciary is a person who holds a legal or ethical relationship of trust with one or more other parties (legal person or group of persons). Typically, a fiduciary prudently takes care of money or other assets for another person.
truth
truth is most often used to mean being in accord with fact or reality, or fidelity to an original or standard.[1] Truth is also sometimes defined in moderncontexts as an idea of “truth to self”, or authenticity.
Truth is usually held to be opposite to falsehood, which, correspondingly, can also suggest a logical, factual, or ethical meaning. The concept of truth is discussed and debated in several contexts, including philosophy, art, theology, and science. Most human activities depend upon the concept, where its nature as a concept is assumed rather than being a subject of discussion; these include most of the sciences, law, journalism, and everyday life. Some philosophers view the concept of truth as basic, and unable to be explained in any terms that are more easily understood than the concept of truth itself. To some, truth is viewed as the correspondence of language or thought to an independent reality, in what is sometimes called the correspondence theory of truth.
Various theories and views of truth continue to be debated among scholars, philosophers, and theologians.[2] Language is a means by which humans convey information to one another. The method used to determine whether something is a truth is termed a criterion of truth. There are varying stances on such questions as what constitutes truth: what things are truthbearerscapable of being true or false; how to define, identify, and distinguish truth; what roles do faith and empirical knowledge play; and whether truth can be subjective or is objective: relative truth versus absolute truth.
ubuntu
Ubuntu (Zulu pronunciation: [ùɓúntʼù])[1] is a NguniBantu term meaning “humanity”. It is sometimes translated as “I am because we are”, or “humanity towards others”, or in Zuluumuntu ngumuntu ngabantu, in Xhosa, umntu ngumntu ngabantu but is often used in a more philosophical sense to mean “the belief in a universal bond of sharing that connects all humanity”.[2]. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy
Definitions[edit]
There are various definitions of ubuntu. The most recent definition was provided by the African Journal of Social Work (AJSW). The journal defined ubuntu as:
A collection of values and practices that Black people of Africa or of African origin view as making people authentic human beings. While the nuances of these values and practices vary across different ethnic groups, they all point to one thing – an authentic individual human being is part of a larger and more significant relational, communal, societal, environmental and spiritual world[3]
There are many different (and not always compatible) definitions of what ubuntu is (for a survey of how ubuntu is defined among South Africans see Gade 2012: “What is Ubuntu? Different Interpretations among South Africans of African Descent”[9]).
Ubuntu asserts that society, not a transcendent being, gives human beings their humanity. An example is a Zulu-speaking person who when commanding to speak in Zulu would say “khuluma isintu“, which means “speak the language of people”. When someone behaves according to custom, a Sotho-speaking person would say “ke motho“, which means “he/she is a human”. The aspect of this that would be exemplified by a tale told (often, in private quarters) in Nguni “kushone abantu ababili ne Shangaan“, in Sepedi “go tlhokofetje batho ba babedi le leShangane“, in English (two people died and one Shangaan). In each of these examples, humanity comes from conforming to or being part of the tribe.
According to Michael Onyebuchi Eze, the core of ubuntu can best be summarised as follows:
A person is a person through other people strikes an affirmation of one’s humanity through recognition of an “other” in his or her uniqueness and difference. It is a demand for a creative intersubjective formation in which the “other” becomes a mirror (but only a mirror) for my subjectivity. This idealism suggests to us that humanity is not embedded in my person solely as an individual; my humanity is co-substantively bestowed upon the other and me. Humanity is a quality we owe to each other. We create each other and need to sustain this otherness creation. And if we belong to each other, we participate in our creations: we are because you are, and since you are, definitely I am. The “I am” is not a rigid subject, but a dynamic self-constitution dependent on this otherness creation of relation and distance.[10]
An “extroverted communities” aspect is the most visible part of this ideology. There is sincere warmth with which people treat both strangers and members of the community. This overt display of warmth is not merely aesthetic but enables the formation of spontaneous communities. The resultant collaborative work within these spontaneous communities transcends the aesthetic and gives functional significance to the value of warmth. How else are you to ask for sugar from your neighbour? Warmth is not the sine qua non of community formation but guards against instrumentalist relationships. Unfortunately, sincere warmth may leave one vulnerable to those with ulterior motives.[11]
“Ubuntu” as political philosophy encourages community equality, propagating the distribution of wealth. This socialisation is a vestige of agrarian peoples as a hedge against the crop failures of individuals. Socialisation presupposes a community population with which individuals empathise and concomitantly, have a vested interest in its collective prosperity. Urbanisation and the aggregation of people into an abstract and bureaucratic state undermines this empathy. African Intellectual historians like Michael Onyebuchi Eze have argued however that this idea of “collective responsibility” must not be understood as absolute in which the community’s good is prior to the individual’s good. On this view, ubuntu it is argued, is a communitarian philosophy that is widely differentiated from the Western notion of communitarian socialism. In fact, ubuntu induces an ideal of shared human subjectivity that promotes a community’s good through an unconditional recognition and appreciation of individual uniqueness and difference.[12] Audrey Tang has suggested that Ubuntu “implies that everyone has different skills and strengths; people are not isolated, and through mutual support they can help each other to complete themselves.”[13]
“Redemption” relates to how people deal with errant, deviant, and dissident members of the community. The belief is that man is born formless like a lump of clay. It is up to the community, as a whole, to use the fire of experience and the wheel of social control to mould him into a pot that may contribute to society. Any imperfections should be borne by the community and the community should always seek to redeem man. An example of this is the statement by the African National Congress (in South Africa) that it does not throw out its own but rather redeems.
Other scholars such as Mboti (2015) argue that the normative definition of Ubuntu, notwithstanding its intuitive appeal, is still open to doubt. The definition of Ubuntu, contends Mboti, has remained consistently and purposely fuzzy, inadequate and inconsistent. Mboti rejects the interpretation that Africans are “naturally” interdependent and harmony-seeking, and that humanity is given to a person by and through other persons. He sees a philosophical trap in attempts to elevate harmony to a moral duty – a sort of categorical imperative – that Africans must simply uphold. Mboti cautions against relying on intuitions in attempts to say what Ubuntu is or is not. He concludes that the phrase umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu references a messier, undisciplined relationship between persons, stating that “First, there is value in regarding a broken relationship as being authentically human as much as a harmonious relationship. Second, a broken relationship can be as ethically desirable as a harmonious one. For instance, freedom follows from a break from oppression. Finally, harmonious relations can be as oppressive and false as disharmonious ones. For instance, the cowboy and his horse are in a harmonious relationship.”[14]
understanding
Understanding is a cognitive process related to an abstract or physical object, such as a person, situation, or message whereby one is able to use concepts to model that object. Understanding is a relation between the knower and an object of understanding. Understanding implies abilities and dispositions with respect to an object of knowledge that are sufficient to support intelligent behavior.[1]
Understanding is often, though not always, related to learning concepts, and sometimes also the theory or theories associated with those concepts. However, a person may have a good ability to predict the behavior of an object, animal or system—and therefore may, in some sense, understand it—without necessarily being familiar with the concepts or theories associated with that object, animal, or system in their culture. They may have developed their own distinct concepts and theories, which may be equivalent, better or worse than the recognized standard concepts and theories of their culture. Thus, understanding is correlated with the ability to make inferences.
Definition
Understanding and knowledge are both words without unified definitions. [2][3]
Ludwig Wittgenstein looked past a definition of knowledge or understanding and looked at how the words were used in natural language, identifying relevant features in context.[4] It has been suggested that knowledge alone has little value whereas knowing something in context is understanding,[5]which has much higher relative value but it has also been suggested that a state short of knowledge can be termed understanding.[6][7]
Someone’s understanding can come from perceived causes [8] or non causal sources,[9] suggesting knowledge being a pillar of where understanding comes from.[10] We can have understanding while lacking corresponding knowledge and have knowledge while lacking the corresponding understanding.[11] Even with knowledge, relevant distinctions or correct conclusion about similar cases may not be made [12][13] suggesting more information about the context would be required, which eludes to different degrees of understanding depending on the context.[10] To understand something implies abilities and dispositions with respect to an object of knowledge that are sufficient to support intelligent behavior.[14]
Understanding could therefore be less demanding than knowledge, because it seems that someone can have understanding of a subject even though they might have been mistaken about that subject. But it is more demanding in that it requires that the internal connections among ones’ beliefs actually be “seen” or “grasped” by the person doing the understanding when found at a deeper level.[10]
Explanatory realism and the propositional model suggests understanding comes from causal propositions [15] but, it has been argued that knowing how the cause might bring an effect is understanding.[16] As understanding is not directed towards a discrete proposition, but involves grasping relations of parts to other parts and perhaps the relations of part to wholes.[17] The relationships grasped help understanding, but the relationships are not always causal.[18]So understanding could therefore be expressed by knowledge of dependencies.[16]
As a model
Gregory Chaitin propounds a view that comprehension is a kind of data compression.[19] In his essay “The Limits of Reason”, he argues that understandingsomething means being able to figure out a simple set of rules that explains it. For example, we understand why day and night exist because we have a simple model—the rotation of the earth—that explains a tremendous amount of data—changes in brightness, temperature, and atmospheric composition of the earth. We have compressed a large amount of information by using a simple model that predicts it. Similarly, we understand the number 0.33333… by thinking of it as one-third. The first way of representing the number requires five concepts (“0”, “decimal point”, “3”, “infinity”, “infinity of 3”); but the second way can produce all the data of the first representation, but uses only three concepts (“1”, “division”, “3”). Chaitin argues that comprehension is this ability to compress data. This perspective on comprehension forms the foundation of some models of intelligent agents, as in Nello Cristianini‘s book “The shortcut”, where it is used to explain that machines can understand the world in fundamentally non-human ways.[20]
universal
universal |ˌjuːnɪˈvəːsl | adjective
- relating to or done by all people or things in the world or in a particular group; applicable to all cases.”universal adult suffrage”
logic | denoting a proposition in which something is asserted of all of a class.
linguistics | denoting or relating to a grammatical rule, set of rules, or other linguistic feature that is found in all languages. (of a tool or machine) adjustable to or appropriate for all requirements.
noun: universal; plural noun: universals
1. a thing having universal effect, currency, or application.
logic | a universal proposition.
philosophy | a term or concept of general application.
philosophy | a nature or essence signified by a general term.
linguistics | a universal grammatical rule or linguistic feature.
origin
late Middle English: from Old French, or from Latin universalis, from universus (see universe)
utility
utility
noun
a study that looks at the utility of using sled dogs rather than snowmobiles: usefulness, use, advantage, benefit, value, help, helpfulness, profitability, convenience, practicality, effectiveness, efficacy, avail, service, serviceableness, advantageousness; feasibility, viability, workability, practicability, possibility; informal mileage.
utilitarianism
Utilitarianism is a family of consequentialist ethical theories that promotes actions that maximize happiness and well-being for the affected individuals.[1][2] Although different varieties of utilitarianism admit different characterizations, the basic idea behind all of them is to in some sense maximize utility, which is often defined in terms of well-being or related concepts. For instance, Jeremy Bentham, the founder of utilitarianism, described utility as “that property in any object, whereby it tends to produce benefit, advantage, pleasure, good, or happiness…[or] to prevent the happening of mischief, pain, evil, or unhappiness to the party whose interest is considered.” Utilitarianism is a version of consequentialism, which states that the consequences of any action are the only standard of right and wrong. Unlike other forms of consequentialism, such as egoism and altruism, utilitarianism considers the interests of all humans equally.
Proponents of utilitarianism have disagreed on a number of points, such as whether actions should be chosen based on their likely results (act utilitarianism) or whether agentsshould conform to rules that maximize utility (rule utilitarianism). There is also disagreement as to whether total (total utilitarianism), average (average utilitarianism) or minimum[3] utility should be maximized.
Though the seeds of the theory can be found in the hedonists Aristippus and Epicurus, who viewed happiness as the only good, the tradition of utilitarianism properly began with Bentham, and has included John Stuart Mill, Henry Sidgwick, R. M. Hare, David Braybrooke and Peter Singer. It has been applied to social welfare economics, the crisis of global poverty, the ethics of raising animals for food and the importance of avoiding existential risks to humanity.
vectoral class
Definition and comment on the vectoral class
“Information, like land or capital, becomes a form of property monopolised by a class of vectoralists, so named because they control the vectors along which information is abstracted, just as capitalists control the material means with which goods are produced, and pastoralists the land with which food is produced. Information circulated within working class culture as a social property belonging to all. But when information in turn becomes a form of private property, workers are dispossessed of it, and must buy their own culture back from its owners, the vectoralist class. The whole of time, time itself, becomes a commodified experience. Vectoralists try to break capital’s monopoly on the production process, and subordinate the production of goods to the circulation of information. The leading corporations divest themselves of their productive capacity, as this is no longer a source of power. Their power lies in monopolising intellectual property – patents and brands – and the means of reproducing their value – the vectors of communication. The privatisation of information becomes the dominant, rather than a subsidiary, aspect of commodified life. As private property advances from land to capital to information, property itself becomes more abstract. As capital frees land from its spatial fixity, information as property frees capital from its fixity in a particular object. … Information, once it becomes a form of property, develops beyond a mere support for capital – it becomes the basis of a form of accumulation in its own right… The vectoral class comes into its own once it is in possession of powerful technologies for vectoralising information. The vectoral class may commodify information stocks, flows, or vectors themselves. A stock of information is an archive, a body of information maintained through time that has enduring value. A flow of information is the capacity to extract information of temporary value out of events and to distribute it widely and quickly. A vector is the means of achieving either the temporal distribution of a stock, or the spatial distribution of a flow of information. Vectoral power is generally sought through the ownership of all three aspects.” (http://subsol.c3.hu/subsol_2/contributors0/warktext.html)
Definition and comment on the vector
“In epidemiology, a vector is the particular means by which a given pathogen travels from one population to another. Water is a vector for cholera, bodily fluids for HIV. By extension, a vector may be any means by which information moves. Telegraph, telephone, television, telecommunications: these terms name not just particular vectors, but a general abstract capacity that they bring into the world and expand. All are forms of telesthesia, or perception at a distance. A given media vector has certain fixed properties of speed, bandwidth, scope and scale, but may be deployed anywhere, at least in principle. The uneven development of the vector is political and economic, not technical… With the commodification of information comes its vectoralisation. Extracting a surplus from information requires technologies capable of transporting information through space, but also through time. The archive is a vector through time just as communication is a vector that crosses space… The vectoral class may commodify information stocks, flows, or vectors themselves. A stock of information is an archive, a body of information maintained through time that has enduring value. A flow of information is the capacity to extract information of temporary value out of events and to distribute it widely and quickly. A vector is the means of achieving either the temporal distribution of a stock, or the spatial distribution of a flow of information. ” (http://subsol.c3.hu/subsol_2/contributors0/warktext.html)
Definition and comment on the hacker class
“The hacker class, producer of new abstractions, becomes more important to each successive ruling class, as each depends more and more on information as a resource. The hacker class arises out of the transformation of information into property, in the form of intellectual property, including patents, trademarks, copyright and the moral right of authors. The hacker class is the class with the capacity to create not only new kinds of object and subject in the world, not only new kinds of property form in which they may be represented, but new kinds of relation beyond the property form. The formation of the hacker class as a class comes at just this moment when freedom from necessity and from class domination appears on the horizon as a possibility…. Hackers must calculate their interests not as owners, but as producers, for this is what distinguishes them from the vectoralist class. Hackers do not merely own, and profit by owning information. They produce new information, and as producers need access to it free from the absolute domination of the commodity form. Hacking as a pure, free experimental activity must be free from any constraint that is not self imposed. Only out of its liberty will it produce the means of producing a surplus of liberty and liberty as a surplus. ” (http://subsol.c3.hu/subsol_2/contributors0/warktext.html)
welfare
Related concepts and fundamentals:
Thanks to Wikipedia